Dunhuang Buddhist texts in transition

In this short essay, a single composite manuscript from Dunhuang has been selected for closer scrutiny with the purpose of identifying and discussing the Chan material it contains, as well as to account for the textual context in which it is found. To this end P. 2104 has been chosen, not only for its representational value but also because it features a variety of individual materials of considerable interest. A review of the contents of P. 2104 reveals that although the manuscript lacks an overall structure and is without inner coherence and organisational logic, it primarily consists of material relating to Esoteric Buddhist (Chin. mijiao 密教) ritual practices as well as Chan Buddhist (Chin. chanzong 禪宗) verses and didactical songs. The Chan material reflects what may be referred to as late Tang (618–907, 唐) to Five Dynasties (906–978, 五代) developments, and as such provides us with information on how a special type of Chan texts appeared in the transition between the later developments under the Tang and the period of formalisation and standardisation that characterises Chan Buddhism during the Northern Song (960–1126, 北宋). Lastly, it shows the manner in which Chan texts of this kind were used by practitioners living in Dunhuang during the Guiyijun (851–1036?, 歸義軍, Return-to-Allegiance Army) period