Water Mass Transformation in the North Atlantic and Its Impact on the Meridional Circulation: Insights from an Ocean Model Forced by NCEP–NCAR Reanalysis Surface Fluxes

Decadal-scale climate variability in the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation is simulated using a sigma-coordinate primitive equation model, forced by NCEP–NCAR reanalysis surface forcing fields for the period from 1958 to 1997. Surface heat and freshwater flux are expressed in terms of surface thermal and haline density inputs, diagnosed by the model. Variability in surface density fluxes is closely correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation and demonstrates differences with the original surface heat and freshwater fluxes. Leading modes of surface water mass transformation are considered in the T–S plane. They identify decadal-scale variability associated with the transformation of the Labrador Sea Waters and Subtropical Mode Waters. Analysis of the model responses to the surface forcing shows an immediate reaction of meridional heat transport to the wind stress curl, resulting in a decrease of meridional heat transport at 48°N and an increase in the subtropics. Delayed baroclinic responses to the surface heat forcing are identified at time lags of 3 and 7 yr. The 3-yr response is represented by an increase in the total meridional heat transport in subpolar latitudes and its simultaneous increase in the Tropics and midlatitudes. The 7-yr delayed response to the surface heat forcing is associated with the strengthening of meridional heat transport at all latitudes. However, 7-yr responses may be influenced by the self-correlation in the meridional heat transport and forcing function. Meridional overturning is largely responsible for the variability observed, demonstrating high correlation with meridional heat transport