Evolution of marine organisms under climate change at different levels of biological organisation.

Research to date has suggested that both individual marine species and ecological processes are expected to exhibit diverse responses to the environmental effects of climate change. Evolutionary responses can occur on rapid (ecological) timescales, and yet studies typically do not consider the role that adaptive evolution will play in modulating biological responses to climate change. Investigations into such responses have typically been focused at particular biological levels (e.g., cellular, population, community), often lacking interactions among levels. Since all levels of biological organisation are sensitive to global climate change, there is a need to elucidate how different processes and hierarchical interactions will influence species fitness. Therefore, predicting the responses of communities and populations to global change will require multidisciplinary efforts across multiple levels of hierarchy, from the genetic and cellular to communities and ecosystems. Eventually, this may allow us to establish the role that acclimatisation and adaptation will play in determining marine community structures in future scenarios.Thanks to Sam Dupont, Piero Calosi, Niall McKeown, Pippa Moore, Paul Shaw, John Spicer and the two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and feedback that greatly improved this manuscript. The collaboration on this manuscript was made possible due to the CeMEB Advanced Course on Marine Evolution Under Climate Change, funded by the Swedish Royal Academy of Science and organised by Sam Dupont, Piero Calosi, Pierre De Wit, Narimane Dorey, Géraldine Fauville, and Greg “George” Puncher. Funding for Ben Harvey was provided by an Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences Ph.D. Studentship and Training Budget. Financial support for Balsam Al-Janabi and Laura S. Stapp was provided by the project BIOACID phase II of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; FKZ 03F0655A/B), Laura S. Stapp also received a travel grant of the Helmholtz Graduate School for Polar and Marine research (POLMAR). Stefanie Broszeit funded by an assegno di ricerca di Università di Bologna. Amit Kumar and Elena Ricevuto were funded by a PhD Studentship from the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn di Napoli. Funding for Rebekah Cioffi was provided by a Plymouth University Ph.D Studentship. Alison Bailey was provided funding by the Norwegian Research Council and Norwegian Polar Institute. Leon Green participated through funding from the Swedish Royal Academy of Science. Carina M. Gsottbauer was funded by the Integrated Aquatic Resources Management between Ireland, Northern Ireland and Scotland (IBIS) (www.loughs-agency.org/ibis), project 2859 supported by the European Union’s Cross-Border Territorial Co-operation Programme for Northern Ireland, the Border Region of Ireland and Western Scotland (INTERREG IVA) programme managed by the Special EU Programmes Body (www.seupb.eu). Emilie Hall had funding provided by the Plymouth University Marine Institute and School of Marine Science & Engineering University Research Studentship. Maria Lechler was funded by MIUR (Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca). Francesco P. Mancuso has funding from TETRIS - Observing, modelling and testing synergies and trade-offs for the adaptive management of multiple impacts in coastal systems” (PRIN 2011, Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research). Camila O. Pereira is thankful to FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo) for the PhD Scholarship. Research Grant No. 2012/14032-9. Julie B. Schram was funded by the Biology Department, University of Alabama at Birmingham, and travel funding from the Endowed Professorship in Polar and Marine Biology provided to James B. McClintock. Simon Stenberg was supported by the Research Council of Norway, Grant No. 222364/F20. Funding for Lindzai T. Santa Rosa was provided by the Brazilian Agency for Higher Education (Capes).Ye