The identification of quality factors in teaching physical education

Predmet šport ima v odraščajočem obdobju učencev pomembno vlogo, ker jim omogoča pridobivanje gibalnih in športnih izkušenj ter razvijanje vseh gibalnih sposobnosti, brez katerih se ne morejo celostno razviti. Dobro razvite gibalne sposobnosti močno vplivajo na pozitiven razvoj ne le gibalnega področja učencev, ampak tudi intelektualnega in čustveno-socialnega, zato jim mora biti zagotovljen kakovostno načrtovan in izpeljan proces predmeta šport. Osrednji namen doktorske disertacije je bil ugotoviti, kateri dejavniki učiteljevega poučevanja so povezani s kakovostnejšo oziroma učinkovitejšo izpeljavo učnih ur športa, nato pa na podlagi teh ugotovitev izdelati model kakovostnega poučevanja predmeta šport. V teoretičnem delu doktorske disertacije smo najprej opredelili različne termine, tj. gibanje, vadbo in šport, ter razložili razlike med njimi. Opisali smo, kako pomembno je gibanje za otroke, kakšen vpliv ima na razvoj intelektualnega in čustveno-socialnega področja ter zdravega življenjskega sloga. Razložili smo vlogo predmeta šport ter to, kako potekata načrtovanje in izpeljava procesa pri tem predmetu. Definirali smo tudi kazalnike kakovosti učnih ur športa ter našteli in opisali nekaj dejavnikov poučevanja, ki utegnejo biti povezani z višjo učinkovitostjo učnih ur. V empiričnem delu smo najprej predstavili potek in rezultate pilotne raziskave, s katero smo preverili merske instrumente in izračunali njihove merske karakteristike. V nadaljevanju smo predstavili glavno raziskavo, ki je potekala na podoben način kot pilotna, le na večjem vzorcu in z bolj izpopolnjenim potekom meritev. V glavni raziskavi je bilo opazovanih in merjenih 108 učnih ur športa na razredni stopnji osnovne šole, od katerih so prvih 58 ur poučevali študentje, naslednjih 50 pa učitelji. Skupno je 648 učencev (324 deklic in 324 dečkov) med učnimi urami nosilo merilnike pospeška, 432 učencem (216 deklicam in 216 dečkom) pa smo izmerili efektivni čas aktivnosti. Izpolnjenih je bilo 108 vprašalnikov o samoevalvaciji poučevanja in 324 vprašalnikov o evalvaciji poučevanja. Vprašalnik o počutju med učno uro športa je izpolnilo 324 učencev. V raziskavi smo uporabili kvantitativni raziskovalni pristop in vzročno-posledično neeksperimentalno metodo. Podatke o kakovosti učnih ur smo najprej pregledali z osnovno statistiko, nato pa s hi-kvadrat preizkusom preverili, ali se v vodenju učinkovitih učnih ur med študenti in učitelji pojavljajo statistično značilne razlike. Za ugotavljanje statistično značilnih razlik med obema skupinama glede doseganja srednje in visoke ravni intenzivnosti aktivnosti učencev ter počutja med učnimi urami športa smo naredili t-test za neodvisne vzorce. Pri tem smo najprej ugotovili homogenost varianc na univariatni ravni z Levenovim testom homogenosti. Za ugotavljanje statistično značilnih razlik v samoevalvacijah poučevanja med učitelji in študenti smo uporabili neparametričen Mann-Whitneyjev preizkus, med samoevalvacijami in evalvacijami pa neparametričen Wilcoxonov preizkus predznačenih rangov. Oba preizkusa sta bila izbrana na podlagi normalnosti porazdelitve spremenljivk, kar smo preverili s Kolmogorov-Smirnovim in Shapiro-Wilkovim preizkusom. Z enakima preizkusoma smo normalnost porazdelitve spremenljivk najprej preverili tudi pri identifikaciji dejavnikov kakovosti poučevanja, nato pa z Mann-Whitneyjevim preizkusom znotraj vsake dimenzije podrobneje ugotavljali statistično značilne razlike glede pogostosti pojavljanja vsakega posameznega dejavnika pri učinkovitih in neučinkovitih učnih urah. Za ugotavljanje povezave med različnimi učnimi vsebinami in kakovostjo učnih ur smo najprej naredili Levenov test homogenosti varianc. Za prvo dimenzijo o zanimivosti učne ure je bil rezultat Levenovega testa statistično značilen, zato smo v nadaljevanju uporabili Tamhanov post hoc preizkus, za drugo dimenzijo o počutju učencev med učnimi urami pa rezultat Levenovega testa ni bil statistično značilen, zato smo v nadaljevanju uporabili Anovo in Tukeyjev post hoc preizkus. Po pridobljenih rezultatih o počutju učencev pri posameznih učnih vsebinah smo preverili tudi povezavo različnih učnih vsebin z efektivnim časom in ravnjo intenzivnosti aktivnosti učencev med učnimi urami. Pri efektivnih časih je bil Levenov test statistično značilen, zato smo za izračune uporabili Tamhanov post hoc preizkus, pri ravni intenzivnosti aktivnosti pa Levenov test ni bil statistično značilen, zato smo v nadaljevanju uporabili Anovo in Tukeyjev post hoc preizkus. Rezultati so pokazali, da je splošna kakovost oziroma učinkovitost učnih ur športa na razredni stopnji na podlagi treh postavljenih kazalnikov kakovosti (višina efektivnih časov aktivnosti učencev, količina časa učencev, preživetega v srednji in visoki intenzivnosti aktivnosti, ter počutje učencev med učnimi urami) izjemno nizka ter da se med študenti in učitelji, ki so učne ure poučevali, ne pojavljajo statistično značilne razlike. Kar se tiče samoocenjevanja kakovosti lastnega poučevanja in svojih učnih ur, so se učitelji z dolgoletnimi izkušnjami v povprečju bolje ocenjevali kot študentje, študentje in učitelji pa so svoje delo bolje ocenili, kot so to so storili trije evalvatorji oziroma zunanji opazovalci. Dejavniki poučevanja, ki so se pri opazovanih učnih urah izkazali kot najpomembnejši za doseganje višjeučinkovitih ur športa, so bili: zagotavljanje diferenciacije in individualizacije pri izvedbi elementov učencev, učiteljeva postavitev v bližini učencev v telovadnici med poučevanjem, neprestano nudenje novih smernic, napotkov in nasvetov učencem, tj. poleg že podanih navodil, poučevanje z navdušenjem, upoštevanje stališč učencev in empatičnost v odnosu do njih, vnašanje truda in energije v učne ure, pozornost na vprašanja in odgovore učencev, klicanje učencev po njihovih imenih, zagotavljanje pozitivnih povratnih informacij pri popravljanju njihovih izvedb in uporaba raznolikih učnih oblik znotraj ene učne ure. Rezultati so pokazali tudi, da se med študenti in učitelji glede pogostosti uporabe različnih dejavnikov poučevanja niso pojavljale statistično značilne razlike, s kakovostjo oziroma učinkovitostjo učnih ur pa je bila povezana tudi različna učna vsebina. Najučinkovitejše učne ure na podlagi vseh treh kazalnikov kakovosti so bile zaznane pri vsebinah atletike. V sklepnem delu smo predstavili model kakovostnega poučevanja predmeta šport, ki je izdelan na podlagi pridobljenih rezultatov in ki predstavlja prispevek k didaktiki športa ter pedagoški znanosti. Model vključuje tiste dejavnike poučevanja učnih ur športa, pri katerih so se pokazale statistično značilne razlike glede na njihovo pogostost uporabe pri učinkovitih in neučinkovitih učnih urah. Prikazuje nam, z uporabo katerih dejavnikov poučevanja bi se lahko povezovala višja učinkovitost učnih ur športa glede na postavljena merila visoke aktivnosti in dobrega počutja učencev.Physical education (PE) plays an important role as children grow up because it enables them to obtain sports experience and develop all their motor skills, without which they cannot develop fully. Well-developed motor skills have a significant impact on the positive development of the motor skills aspect of pupils and their intellectual and socio-emotional aspects, which is why the planning and implementation of the PE subject in schools must be ensured at a high level of quality. The presented doctoral dissertation’s main purpose was to determine which factors of a teaching process can lead to the higher quality and more effective implementation of PE lessons, and then, based on these findings, create a model of high-quality teaching for this subject. In the theoretical part of the doctoral dissertation, we first defined certain terms, namely ‘movement’, ‘exercise’, and ‘sport’, and explained the differences between them. We described how important movement is for children, its effect on the development of intellectual and socio-emotional aspects, as well as on a healthy lifestyle. We explained the role of the PE subject and how its planning and implementation take place. We also defined the quality indicators of PE lessons, as well as listed and described certain aspects of teaching that may affect the greater effectiveness of lessons. In the empirical part of the dissertation, we first presented the procedure and results of the pilot study, with which we verified the measuring instruments and calculated their measuring characteristics. In continuation, we presented the main study, which was carried out similarly to the pilot study, only on a larger sample and using a more perfected measurement procedure. In the main study, 108 PE lessons at primary school grade level were observed and measured, of which the first 58 were taught by pupils, and the next 50 were taught by teachers. There were 648 pupils in total (324 girls and 324 boys), who wore acceleration measuring devices during the lessons, and we measured the effective time of learner engagement for 432 pupils (216 girls and 216 boys). Furthermore, 108 questionnaires on the self-evaluation of teaching were completed, and 324 questionnaires on the evaluation of teaching. The questionnaire on how they felt during the PE lesson was completed by 324 pupils. In this study, we used a quantitative research approach and a causal non-experimental method. Data on the quality of lessons were first reviewed using basic statistics, and then using a hi-square test to check whether statistically significant differences in effective lessons management appeared between students and teachers. In order to determine any statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of achieving medium- and high-level intensity of student engagement and well-being during sports lessons, we conducted a t-test for independent samples. In doing so, we first determined the homogeneity of variances at the univariate level using Levene’s homogeneity test. To determine statistically significant differences in teacher self-evaluation between teachers and students, we used the nonparametric Mann-Whitney test, and between self-evaluations and evaluations, the nonparametric Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test. Both tests were selected based on the normality of the distribution of variables, which we verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Using the same tests, we first checked the normality of the distribution of variables in identifying teaching quality factorsthen we used the Mann-Whitney test within each dimension to identify statistically significant differences in the frequency of each factor in the effective and ineffective lessons. To determine any connection between various learning contents and the quality of lessons, we first conducted Levene\u27s test to check the homogeneity of variances. For the first dimension on the interestingness of class lessons, the result of Levene\u27s test was statistically significant, so we proceeded using the Tamhane post hoc test. However, for the second dimension on the well-being of students during lessons, the result of Levene\u27s test was not statistically significant, so we proceeded using ANOVA and Tukey\u27s post hoc test. According to the obtained results on the well-being of students in individual learning contents, we also checked the connection between various learning contents having an effective time and level of intensity of students\u27 activities during lessons. For the effective times, Levene’s test was statistically significant, so we proceeded using the Tamhane post hoc test for calculations. However, at the activity intensity level, Levene’s test was not statistically significant, so we proceeded using the ANOVA and Tukey\u27s post hoc test. The results showed that the general level of quality and the effectiveness of PE lessons at grade level was assessed on the basis of the set quality indicators (amount of the pupils\u27 effective time of learner engagement, amount of the pupils\u27 time spent performing medium and high-intensity activities, and how the pupils felt during these lessons) was exceptionally low and that there were no statistically significant differences between pupils and teachers that taught the lessons. Concerning the self-evaluation of the quality of their own teaching and their lessons, the teachers with many years of experience evaluated themselves more highly than the pupils did, while both the pupils and the teachers evaluated their work better than the three external evaluators (observers) did. The teaching factors that turned out to be the most important in the achievement of higher levels of PE lesson effectiveness were ensuring differentiation and individualisation in the performance of elements by the pupils, the teachers’ position near the pupils while teaching in the sports hall, the continuous provision of new recommendations and advice to the pupils (in addition to the already provided instructions), teaching with enthusiasm, respecting the views of pupils and showing empathy to them, carefully listening to the pupils’ questions and answers, calling pupils by their names, providing positive feedback when correcting their performance and using different forms of within-class grouping in one lesson. The results also showed no statistically significant differences between the students and teachers regarding how frequently they used the various teaching factors, whereas the teaching content did affect the quality and effectiveness of the lessons. The most effective lessons, based on all three quality indicators, were athletics-based lessons. In the conclusion, we presented a model of high-quality teaching of PE lessons, which was created based on the obtained results and represents our contribution to PE didactics and the science of teaching. The model includes those factors of teaching PE lessons that indicated statistically significant differences given their frequency of use in the effective and ineffective lessons. It shows us which teaching factors could be used to achieve greater effectiveness in PE lessons considering the set criteria of high levels of activity and the well-being of the pupils