On the PF6− anion intercalation in graphite from sodium salt-based electrolytes containing different mixtures of organic carbonates

The intercalation of PF6− anions in graphite from various sodium salt-based electrolytes with organic carbonate mixtures as solvents is investigated. The purpose was to optimize the electrochemical performance of the graphite as cathode in terms of specific capacity, capacity stability, and coulombic efficiency to be coupled in the future with a hard carbon-based anode in a full sodium dual-ion battery. To this end, a detailed study was made of the influence of applied current density, upper cut-off voltage (UCOV), and electrolyte—in terms of both salt concentration and solvent mixture—on the intercalation/de-intercalation of PF6− anions in the graphite cathode. Low (37.2 mA g−1) and high (372.0 mA g−1) currents, UCOVs from 4.8 to 5.2 V, electrolytes with NaPF6 salt concentrations in the range of 0.2–1.2M and EC:DEC, EC:DMC and EC:EMC solvent mixtures were studied. The best graphite cathode performance was attained in 1.2MNaPF6/EC:EMC electrolyte at the highest current density of 372.0 mA g−1 and for the potential range between 2.9 and 5.0 V vs. Na/Na+. In these conditions, a discharge capacity of 79 mAh g−1 after 1000 cycles with a coulombic efficiency of 99 % and a remarkable capacity retention throughout cycling were determined.Financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Project RTI2018-094286-A-I00) and Asturias Regional Government (GRUPIN 2018, IDI/2018/000234) is gratefully acknowledged. I. Cameán thanks the funding from Fundación General CSIC (Programa ComFuturo, II Edition) to develop the work.Peer reviewe