Bioprinting of Stem Cells in Multimaterial Scaffolds and Their Applications in Bone Tissue Engineering

Bioprinting stem cells into three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds has emerged as a new avenue for regenerative medicine, bone tissue engineering, and biosensor manufacturing in recent years. Mesenchymal stem cells, such as adipose-derived and bone-marrow-derived stem cells, are capable of multipotent differentiation in a 3D culture. The use of different printing methods results in varying effects on the bioprinted stem cells with the appearance of no general adverse effects. Specifically, extrusion, inkjet, and laser-assisted bioprinting are three methods that impact stem cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation potential. Each printing method confers advantages and disadvantages that directly influence cellular behavior. Additionally, the acquisition of 3D bioprinters has become more prominent with innovative technology and affordability. With accessible technology, custom 3D bioprinters with capabilities to print high-performance bioinks are used for biosensor fabrication. Such 3D printed biosensors are used to control conductivity and electrical transmission in physiological environments. Once printed, the scaffolds containing the aforementioned stem cells have a significant impact on cellular behavior and differentiation. Natural polymer hydrogels and natural composites can impact osteogenic differentiation with some inducing chondrogenesis. Further studies have shown enhanced osteogenesis using cell-laden scaffolds in vivo. Furthermore, selective use of biomaterials can directly influence cell fate and the quantity of osteogenesis. This review evaluates the impact of extrusion, inkjet, and laser-assisted bioprinting on adipose-derived and bone-marrow-derived stem cells along with the effect of incorporating these stem cells into natural and composite biomaterials