Black carbon modeling in urban areas: investigating the influence of resuspension and non-exhaust emissions in streets using the Street-in-Grid model for inert particles (SinG-inert)

Black carbon (BC) is a primary and inert pollutant often used as a traffic tracer. Even though its concentrations are generally low at the regional scale, BC presents very high concentrations in streets (at the local scale), potentially with important effects on human health and the environment. Modeling studies of BC concentrations usually underestimate BC concentrations due to uncertainties in both emissions and modeling. Both exhaust and non-exhaust traffic emissions present uncertainties, but the uncertainties with respect to non-exhaust emissions, such as tire, brake, and road wear as well as particle resuspension, are particularly high. In terms of modeling, street models do not always consider the two-way interactions between the local and regional scales. Using a two-way modeling approach, a street with high BC concentrations may influence urban background concentrations above the street, which can subsequently enhance the BC concentrations in the same street. This study uses the multiscale Street-in-Grid model (SinG) to simulate BC concentrations in a suburban street network in Paris, taking the two-way coupling between local and regional scales into account. The BC concentrations in streets proved to have an important influence on urban background concentrations. The two-way dynamic coupling leads to an increase in BC concentrations in large streets with high traffic emissions (with a maximal increase of about 48 %) as well as a decrease in narrow streets with low traffic emissions and low BC concentrations (with a maximal decrease of about 50 %). A new approach to estimate particle resuspension in streets is implemented, strictly respecting the mass balance on the street surface. The resuspension rate is calculated from the available deposited mass on the street surface, which is estimated based on particle deposition and wash-off parameterizations adapted to street-canyon geometries. The simulations show that particle resuspension presents a low contribution to BC concentrations, as the deposited mass is not significant enough to justify high resuspension rates. Non-exhaust emissions, such as brake, tire, and road wear, may largely contribute to BC emissions, with a contribution that is equivalent to exhaust emissions. Here, a sensitivity analysis of BC concentrations is performed by comparing simulations with different emission factors of tire, brake, and road wear. The different emission factors considered are estimated based on the literature. We found a satisfying model–measurement comparison using high tire wear emission factors, which may indicate that the tire emission factors usually used in Europe are probably underestimated. These results have important policy implications: public policies replacing internal combustion engines with electric vehicles may not eliminate BC air pollution but only reduce it by half.