An analysis of climate change resilience of vulnerable rural communities in Malawi

Abstracts in English, Afrikaans and ZuluClimate change is increasingly becoming a global challenge and countries are feeling its impacts. Malawi is heavily affected by the impacts of climate change because her economy depends on agriculture which is extremely sensitive to climate change. As a result, community-resilient livelihoods are eroded, leading to reduced adaptive capacities, and therefore low resilience levels. The study (an analysis of climate change resilience of vulnerable rural communities in Malawi) was conducted in four districts of Malawi, namely Chikwawa, Karonga, Salima and Zomba. Data was gathered using several methodologies and tools such as structured questionnaires administered to 402 households, 15 focus group discussions (FGD), 15 key informant interviews (KII), and a survey monkey that was administered to a few government staff members at ministerial level. The study revealed that 94.3% of respondents are aware of climate change and are able to differentiate between current weather conditions and the conditions of 30 years ago. At least 83.7% indicated a decline in the quantity of precipitation; 85.7% noticed late onset of precipitation; 88.7% stated that there is early cessation of precipitation; 92.4% said that there is oftentimes poor precipitation distribution; 95.9% showed increased temperatures; 94.9% expressed prevalence of regular strong winds; 90.9% indicated late planting of crops; and 94.7% indicated regular floods in large volumes. The common disasters related to climate change in study areas are floods, erratic rainfall, droughts, hailstorms, and army worms. When disasters occur, key coping mechanisms include sales of household assets, wage labour, relief and donations, migration to find employment and petty trade. The main adaptation strategies employed by smallholder farmers are conservation agriculture, livestock production for income, irrigated agriculture to supplement rain-fed farming, crop diversification, cultivation of drought-tolerant crops, aquaculture, agroforestry, and planting early maturing varieties. In terms of indicators of resilience, it was reported that households can cope and recover from shocks. Households can also adapt to change, access clean water and to some extent earn a stable income. The study further revealed that climate change resilience building in Malawi is hampered by inadequate extension services to communities, inadequate understanding of climate resilience principles, the frequent occurrence of natural disasters that affect gains made on adaptation and resilience building, and poor implementation and climate financing. The overall analysis concludes that the communities are resilient but not to desired/adequate levels. As much as several climate change adaptation efforts are being made, climate change resilience building in Malawi is slow. This entails that communities are not more resilient because their economic security is not adequately diversified. It is pleasing to note that households have adequate access to water supply. Disaster preparedness is also sound and effective, and households are enjoying continued peace and security. Three out of four characteristics of resilience are being met by the households to some extent. In order to ensure effective and enhanced climate change resilience, it is recommended that policy awareness must be ensured by reviewing and implementing policy. Institutional arrangements for climate change must also be supported. Furthermore, irrigation farming for adaptation must be enhanced. In addition, there must be full devolution of powers from central government to district authorities. Other recommendations include reforming livestock production in the face of climate change; improving extension services to smallholder farmers; promoting crop diversification for adaptation; enhancing water harvesting to adapt to drought and water shortage; promoting the use of improved agricultural inputs for adaptation; carrying out future research related to climate change resilience; and ensuring collaboration among stakeholders in resilience building. Key Terms: climate change, climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, vulnerability, climate change resilience, adaptation strategies, climate change impacts, natural disasters, community-based adaptation, and ecosystem based adaptation.Klimaatsverandering bied wêreldwyd toenemende uitdagings en lande beleef die uitwerking daarvan eerstehands. Malawi word swaar getref deur die uitwerking van klimaatsverandering omdat die land se ekonomie van landbou afhanklik is en die landboubedryf uiters sensitief vir klimaatsverandering is. Gemeenskappe se veerkragtige vermoë om ’n bestaan te voer word afgetakel. Dit lei tot verminderde aanpassingsvermoëns en dus tot lae vlakke van veerkragtigheid. Hierdie studie (’n ontleding van kwesbare landelike gemeenskappe se veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering in Malawi) is onderneem in vier distrikte in Malawi, naamlik Chikwawa, Karonga, Salima en Zomba. Verskeie metodologieë en hulpmiddels is aangewend, insluitende gestruktureerde vraelyste wat deur 402 huishoudings voltooi is, 15 fokusgroepbesprekings, 15 onderhoude met sleutelinformante, en ’n Survey Monkey-vraelys wat deur regeringsamptenare op ministersvlak ingevul is. Die studie het getoon dat 94.3% van respondente bewus was van klimaatsverandering en kon onderskei tussen heersende weerstoestande en die toestande 30 jaar vantevore. Ten minste 83.7% het aangedui dat reënval afgeneem het; 85.7% het opgemerk dat reënval laat begin; 88.7% het gesê dat reënval vroeër ophou; 92.4% het gesê daar is dikwels swak reënvalverspreiding; 95.9% het gemeld dat temperature styg; 94.9% het gesê dat daar gereeld ’n sterk wind waai; 90.9% het gesê dat gewasse laat geplant word; en 94.7% het melding gemaak van groot oorstromings wat gereeld voorkom. Die algemene rampe wat met klimaatsverandering in die studiegebiede verband hou is oorstromings, onreëlmatige reënval, droogtes, haelstorms en kommandowurms. Wanneer huishoudings deur rampe getref word, sluit hulle belangrikste hanteringsmeganismes die volgende in: die verkoop van die huishouding se bates; loonarbeid; noodleniging en skenkings; migrasie om werk te kry; en beperkte handelsaktiwiteite. Die aanpassingstrategieë wat kleinboere volg sluit in bewaringslandbou; veeteelt vir ’n inkomste; besproeiingslandbou om landbou wat op reënval steun aan te vul; gewasdiversifikasie; die verbouing van droogtebestande gewasse; visboerdery; agribosbou; en die verbouing van gewasse wat vinnig ryp word. Betreffende aanduiders van veerkragtigheid is daar gemeld dat huishoudings die skokke kan hanteer en daarvan kan herstel. Huishoudings kan aanpas by verandering; hulle het toegang tot skoon water; en sommige verdien ’n redelik stabiele inkomste. Die studie toon verder dat die ontwikkeling van veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering in Malawi aan bande gelê word deur onvoldoende landbouvoorligtingsdienste aan gemeenskappe; onvoldoende begrip van die beginsels van veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering; natuurrampe wat dikwels voorkom (en aanpassing en veerkragtigheid belemmer); en die swak implementering van finansiering. Die oorkoepelende ontleding toon dat gemeenskappe wel veerkragtig is, maar nog nie voldoende of gewenste vlakke van veerkragtigheid bereik het nie. Daar word baie pogings aangewend om aan te pas by klimaatsverandering, maar die pas waarteen veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering in Malawi toeneem, is stadig. Gemeenskappe is nie veerkragtig genoeg nie omdat hulle ekonomiese sekuriteit nie voldoende gediversifeer is nie. Dit is gerusstellend dat huishoudings voldoende toegang tot skoon water het. Hulle is ook goed voorbereid op rampe en geniet vrede en sekuriteit. Drie van die vier kenmerke van veerkragtigheid word in ’n mate by die huishoudings bespeur. Die aanbeveling is dat ’n bewustheid van beleid geskep moet word deur dit te hersien en te implementeer om sodoende huishoudings se veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering bevorder en uit te brei. Institusionele inisiatiewe rakende klimaatsverandering moet ook ondersteun word. Voorts moet besproeiingslandbou bevorder word. Daarby moet al die sentrale regering se mag afgewentel word aan distriksowerhede. Verdere aanbevelings word gemaak rakende die hervorming van veeproduksie; verbeterde landbouvoorligtingsdienste aan kleinboere; die bevordering van gewasdiversifikasie; verbeterde water-oespraktyke droogtes en watertekorte die hoof te bied; die verbetering van landbou-insette vir beter aanpassing; toekomstige navorsing oor veerkragtigheid teen klimaatsverandering; en samewerking tussen diegene wat betrokke is by die ontwikkeling van gemeenskappe se veerkragtigheid.Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kuya ngokuya kuba inselele emhlabeni wonke futhi amazwe ayawuzwa umthelela wako. IMalawi ithinteke kakhulu ngokushintsha kwesimo sezulu ngenxa yokuthi umnotho wayo uncike kwezolimo ezizwela kakhulu ngokushintsha kwesimo sezulu. Ngenxa yalokhu, izindlela zokuziphilisa ezikwazi ukumelana nesimo zomphakathi ziyaguguleka, okuholela ekwehleni kwamandla okuguquguquka, kanjalo namazinga aphansi okumelana nezimo. Ucwaningo (ukuhlaziywa kokumelana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu emiphakathini yasemaphandleni esengcupheni eMalawi) lwenziwa ezifundeni ezine zaseMalawi, okuyiChikwawa, yiKaronga, yiSalima kanye neZomba. Imininingwane yaqoqwa kusetshenziswa izindlela namathuluzi amaningana afana nohlu lwemibuzo oluhlelekile oluqondiswe emakhaya angama-402, izingxoxo zamaqembu ayi-15 (FGD), izinhlolokhono eziyinhloko eziyi-15 (KII), kanye nenhlolovo yakwa-survey monkey eyasatshalaliswa kubasebenzi bakahulumeni abambalwa ezingeni longqongqoshe. Lolu cwaningo luveze ukuthi abantu abangama-94.3% abaphendulile bayalwazi uguquko lwesimo sezulu futhi bayakwazi ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwesimo sezulu samanje kanye nesimo seminyaka engu-30 edlule. Okungenani abangama-83.7% babalule ukwehla kwenani lemvula; Abangama-85.7% baqaphele ukuphuza ukuqala kwemvula; Abangama-88.7% bathi kunokunqamuka ngaphambi kwesikhathi kwemvula; Abangama-92.4% bathi ezikhathini eziningi kuba nemvula engasabalele kahle; abangama-95.9% baveze amazinga okushisa anyukile; abangama-94.9% bazwakalise ukusabalala kwemimoya enamandla; abangama-90.9% babalule ukuphuza ukutshalwa kwezitshalo; kwase kwathi abangama-94.7% babonisa izikhukhula ezivamile ngokwezamba ezinkulu. Izinhlekelele ezijwayelekile ezihlobene nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu ezindaweni zocwaningo yizikhukhula, izimvula eziguquguqukayo, isomiso, isichotho kanye nezibungu. Uma kuba khona inhlekelele, izindlela eziqavile zokubhekana nalokhu zifaka kuzo ukudayiswa kwempahla yasekhaya, ukusebenzela amawejisi, ukusizwa ngemali nokunikelelwa, ukuya kwamanye amazwe ukuyofuna umsebenzi kanye nokuhweba okungathi shu. Amasu aqavile okuzivumelanisa nezimo asetshenziswa abalimi abancane ngezolimo zokulondoloza imvelo, ukufuya imfuyo ukuze bathole inzuzo, ukunisela ngenkasa ukuze kwenezele ukulima okunezimvula, ukuhlukahluka kwezitshalo, ukutshala izitshalo ezikwazi ukumelana nesomiso, ukufuywa kwezilwane zasemanzini, ukutshala amahlathi, kanye nokutshala izinhlobo ezisheshe zivuthwe. Mayelana nezinkomba zokumelana nesimo, kubikwe ukuthi amakhaya ayakwazi ukumelana nesimo nokululama ekushaqekeni. Imindeni ingakwazi futhi ukuzivumelanisa noshintsho, ifinyelele emanzini ahlanzekile futhi ngokwesilinganiso esithile ithole iholo elizinzile. Lolu cwaningo luqhube lwaveza ukuthi ukwakhiwa kokumelana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu eMalawi kukhinyabezwa yizinsiza ezinganele zokudluliswa kwezinsiza emiphakathini, ukungaqondi kahle kwezimiso zokubhekana nesimo sezulu, ukwenzeka njalo kwezinhlekelele zemvelo ezithinta izinzuzo ezitholwayo ekuzivumelaniseni nezimo nokwakhiwa kokukwazi ukumelana nezimo, kanye nokungaqalisi kahle ukusetshenziswa kwako kanye nokuxhaswa ngemali kwezesimo sezulu. Ukuhlaziya sekukonke kuphetha ngokuthi imiphakathi iyakwazi ukumelana nezimo kodwa hhayi emazingeni afisekayo/anele. Njengoba nje kwenziwa imizamo eminingana yokubhekana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu, ukwakhiwa kwemizamo yokuvumelanisa nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu, nokwakhiwa kokukwazi ukumelana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu eMalawi kuhamba kancane. Lokhu kubandakanya ukuthi imiphakathi ayikwazi ukumelana ngenxa yokuthi ezomnotho zayo azihlukanisiwe ngokwanele. Kuyajabulisa ukuqaphela ukuthi imindeni ikwazi ukuthola amanzi anele. Ukulungiselela izinhlekelele nakho kunengqondo futhi kuyasebenza kanti futhi amakhaya ajabulela ukuthula nokulondeka okuqhubekayo. Izici ezintathu kwezine zokukwazi ukumelana ziyahlangatshezwa yimindeni ngokwesilinganiso esithile. Ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukukwazi ukumelana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu okusebenzayo nokuthuthukisiwe, kunconywa ukuthi ukuqwashisa ngenqubomgomo kumele kuqinisekiswe ngokubuyekeza nokusebenzisa inqubomgomo. Amalungiselelo ezikhungo zokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu nawo kumele asekelwe. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukulima ngenkasa ukuze kuvumelane nesimo kufanele kuthuthukiswe. Ukwengeza, kumele kube nokudluliswa okugcwele kwamandla kusuka kuhulumeni omkhulu kuya kuziphathimandla zezifunda. Ezinye izincomo zibandakanya ukuguqula ukukhiqizwa kwemfuyo uma kunenkinga yokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu; ukwenza ngcono izinsiza zokwandisa abalimi abasafufusa; ukugqugquzela ukuhlukahluka kwezitshalo ukuze zivumelane nesimo; ukuthuthukisa izinhlelo zokuqoqwa kwamanzi emvula ukuze kuvumenaliswe nesomiso nokushoda kwamanzi; ukugqugquzela ukusetshenziswa kwezinsiza zezolimo ezithuthukisiwe ukuze zivumelane nesimo; ukwenza ucwaningo lwangomuso oluhlobene nokumelana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu; kanye nokuqinisekisa ukusebenzisana phakathi kwababambe iqhaza ekwakheni isimo sokukwazi ukumelana.Development StudiesD. Phil. (Development Studies