Chemical source profiles of particulate matter and gases emitted from solid fuels for residential cooking and heating scenarios in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Incomplete combustion of solid fuels (animal dung and bituminous coal) is a common phenomenon during residential cooking and heating in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP), resulting in large amounts of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. This study investigated the pollutant emissions from six burning scenarios (heating and cooking with each of the three different fuels: yak dung, sheep dung, and bitumite) in the QTP's pastoral dwellings. Target pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), fine particles (PM2.5, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 mu m), carbonaceous aerosols, water-soluble ions, and particle-phase PAHs were investigated. Emission factors (EFs) (mean +/- standard deviation) of PM2.5 from the six scenarios were in the range of 1.21 +/- 0.47-7.03 +/- 1.95 g kg(-1), of which over 60% mass fractions were carbonaceous aerosols. The ratio of organic carbon to elemental carbon ranged from 9.6 +/- 2.7-33.4 +/- 11.5 and 81.7 +/- 30.4-91.9 +/- 29.0 for dung and bitumite burning, respectively. These values were much larger than those reported in the literature, likely because of the region's high altitudes-where the oxygen level is approximately 65% of that at the sea level-thus providing a deficient air supply to stoves. However, the toxicity and carcinogenicity of PAHs emitted from solid fuel combustion in the QTP are significant, despite a slightly lower benzo(a)pyrene-equivalent carcinogenic potency (Bap(eq)) in this study than in the literature. The gas-to-particle partitioning coefficient of PAHs and VOC emission profiles in the QTP differed significantly from those reported for other regions in the literature. More attention should be paid to the emissions of PAH derivatives (oxygenated PAHs and nitro-PAHs), considering their enhanced lightabsorbing ability and high BaPeq from solid fuel combustion in the QTP