Selective Metal Coordination in Antifouling Coatings

Marine biofouling is the accumulation of biological material (e.g. microorganisms, soft- and hard-fouling organisms) on the surface of an object submerged in seawater, and it remains a worldwide problem for shipping industries. The fouling of ship hulls results in a reduction of speed and manoeuvrability due to frictional drag, as well as increased fuel consumption and accelerated corrosion, and the exorbitant expenses and losses of efficiency attributed to biofouling have prompted the development of antifouling coatings. Current antifouling paints use copper as a biocidal agent, but copper-based paints are increasingly being banned due to environmental concerns about the non-target effects of leached copper. This project aims to circumvent these concerns and tightening regulations via a revolutionary concept: the development of marine antifouling paints that incorporate Cu(II)-selective ligands to draw the biocidal ingredient (i.e. Cu(II)) from seawater. A multistage strategy emerged for the development of this technology. First, criteria were established for the project’s ideal ligand, and ligands were synthesised or selected based on these criteria. Second, the ligands were incorporated in coatings through covalent modification of the paint binder or additives. Third, methodology was developed and implemented to test each coating’s ability to coordinate and retain Cu(II), as well as its subsequent ability to prevent microfouling by marine bacteria. The suitability of two ligand classes was assessed: acylhydrazones and tetraaza macrocycles, specifically cyclen. Unlike the acylhydrazones, cyclen met the established criteria and was initially evaluated as a curing agent and/or surface-modifier in a two-pack epoxy system with resin Epikote™ 235. However, the Cu(II)-loading by these coatings was relatively low, being at most ~0.05% w/w, and the modification of silica, a common paint additive, with cyclen was explored as an alternative formulation route. The method for the functionalisation of silica with cyclen was optimised, and the maximum Cu(II)-loading achieved by the product was 2.60% w/w. The cyclen-functionalised silica was incorporated on the surface of an epoxy coating, and a bacterial adherence assay was developed to assess the cellular attachment of marine bacterium Vibrio harveyi to this coating, which was found to be undeterred. Yet, the development of the strategy and testing methodology by which the project’s goals may be achieved provides a solid foundation for future work.