Irreversibility at macromolecular scales in the flake graphite of the lithium-ion battery anode

Charging a commercial lithium-ion battery intercalates lithium into the graphite-based anode, creating various lithium carbide structures. Despite their economic importance, these structures and the dynamics of their charging-discharging transitions are not well-understood. We have videoed single microcrystals of high-quality, natural graphite undergoing multiple lithiation-delithiation cycles. Because the equilibrium lithium-carbide compounds corresponding to full, half, and one-third charge are gold, red, and blue respectively, video observations give direct insight into both the macromolecular structures and the kinematics of charging and discharging. We find that the transport during the first lithiation is slow and orderly, and follows the core-shell or shrinking annuli model with phase boundaries moving at constant velocities (i.e. non-diffusively). Subsequent lithiations are markedly different, showing transport that is both faster and disorderly, which indicates that the initially pristine graphite is irreversibly and considerably altered during the first cycle. In all cases deintercalation is not the time-reverse of intercalation. These findings both illustrate how lithium enters nearly defect-free host material, and highlight the differences between the idealized case and an actual, cycling graphite anode