Add to ORKGPrevious research on crowding has generally lacked a theoretical perspective. Moreover, there has been a tendency to view crowding in terms of spatial considerations alone and a failure to distinguish between the physical condition (density) and the psychological experience (crowding). In the present discussion, a heuristic model of human crowding phenomena is proposed which permits an integration of various theoretical perspectives and the derivation of experimental hypotheses. Although the limitation of space remains as the essential ingredient of crowding, the proposed model introduces personal and social variables which have a direct bearing on a person's perception of spatial restriction as well as on his attempts to cope with this con...