Biochemical and Proteomic Characterization, and Pharmacological Insights of Indian Red Scorpion Venom Toxins

The Indian red scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) is one of the world’s deadliest scorpions, with stings representing a life-threatening medical emergency. This species is distributed throughout the Indian sub-continent, including eastern Pakistan, eastern Nepal, and Sri Lanka. In India, Indian red scorpions are broadly distributed in western Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka; however, fatal envenomations have been recorded primarily in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. The Indian red scorpion venom proteome comprises 110 proteins belonging to 13 venom protein families. The significant pharmacological activity is predominantly caused by the low molecular mass non-enzymatic Na+ and K+ ion channel toxins. Other minor toxins comprise 15.6% of the total venom proteome. Indian red scorpion stings induce the release of catecholamine, which leads to pathophysiological abnormalities in the victim. A strong correlation has been observed between venom proteome composition and local (swelling, redness, heat, and regional lymph node involvement) and systemic (tachycardia, mydriasis, hyperglycemia, hypertension, toxic myocarditis, cardiac failure, and pulmonary edema) manifestations. Immediate administration of antivenom is the preferred treatment for Indian red scorpion stings. However, scorpion-specific antivenoms have exhibited poor immunorecognition and neutralization of the low molecular mass toxins. The proteomic analysis also suggests that Indian red scorpion venom is a rich source of pharmacologically active molecules that may be envisaged as drug prototypes. The following review summarizes the progress made towards understanding the venom proteome of the Indian red scorpion and addresses the current understanding of the pathophysiology associated with its sting