Health Insurance, Healthcare Utilisation and Labour Market Outcomes: a Micro Study of Ghana

The question concerning the existence of syphilis in the pre-Columbian Old World has been debated from around the 1530’s when Fracastoro, Ruiz de Isla, Oviedo and Le Casas all published their thoughts on syphilis originating in the New World. However, syphilis may have existed in the Old World prior to Columbus as a mild infection under the disguise of many diseases including leprosy. Since then the debate has branched out to include other facets of evidence, including paleopathology and examination of DNA from bones. These facets have advanced our understanding of the disease and how it affects human remains but, have yet to solve its origins. The pre- and post-Columbian literature were re-evaluated to assess an overall view of why syphilis was seen as a new disease post-Columbus. The role of the events that led the French army of Charles VIII into Italy, that decisively contributed to the Columbian thesis needs to be discussed. This thesis re-examines through both literature and mathematical calculations, the possibility of infection from the New World through Columbus’ voyage, and infection through a mild form of syphilis (endemic treponematosis) which became inflamed through constant re-infection resulting in a superinfection. In addition, it suggests that mercury which was a source of medicine for syphilis can be used to support the presence of syphilis, even when there are minor pathognomonic signs of the disease in skeletal remains. Regardless, it must be taken into account that mercury was used to treat other skin diseases such as leprosy, therefore differential diagnosis is necessary to draw appropriate conclusions. Methods included the examination of pre-Columbian skeletal remains from various countries. The collections consist of Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt, Ancient Greek Metaponto, Oplontis (Pompeii), medieval Danish leprosarium and early medieval Polish Kolonia and Brześć Kujawski,. Small fragments were taken from bones and analysed by Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The LA-ICP-MS is capable of measuring traces of mercury. The results suggest that the majority of skeletal remains show signs of syphilis were likely treated with mercury as mercury concentrations in bone have higher than the normal 0.1 ppm concentrations compared to those in control samples that lack pathological indicators. This suggests that people were using mercury to treat individuals with pathological signs indicative of syphilis prior to the siege of Naples in 1495. Furthermore, it adds supporting evidence that will nullify the New World as the source of condition.Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Economics, 201