Characterizing Batteries by In Situ Electrochemical Atomic Force Microscopy: A Critical Review

Although lithium, and other alkali ion, batteries are widely utilized and studied, many of the chemical and mechanical processes that underpin the materials within, and drive their degradation/failure, are not fully understood. Hence, to enhance the understanding of these processes various ex situ, in situ and operando characterization methods are being explored. Recently, electrochemical atomic force microscopy (EC-AFM), and related techniques, have emerged as crucial platforms for the versatile characterization of battery material surfaces. They have revealed insights into the morphological, mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of battery materials when they evolve under electrochemical control. This critical review will appraise the progress made in the understanding batteries using EC-AFM, covering both traditional and new electrode–electrolyte material junctions. This progress will be juxtaposed against the ability, or inability, of the system adopted to embody a truly representative battery environment. By contrasting key EC-AFM literature with conclusions drawn from alternative characterization tools, the unique power of EC-AFM to elucidate processes at battery interfaces is highlighted. Simultaneously opportunities for complementing EC-AFM data with a range of spectroscopic, microscopic, and diffraction techniques to overcome its limitations are described, thus facilitating improved battery performance