Heterogeneous catalysts for hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass. A review

The biomass conversion into more valuable fuels represents one of the most viable routes for the exploitation of this material. Hydrothermal liquefaction is currently considered one of the most efficient processes to convert wet biomass into a bio-crude, which however requires expensive upgrading treatments to be used as biofuel. The use of catalysts able to directly improve bio-crude yield and quality during the reaction is of fundamental importance to increase the overall process efficiency. Homogeneous alkaline catalysts are the most studied, but they are not recoverable at the end of the process and so cannot be reused. The use of heterogeneous catalysts allows to overcome this issue making the recovery and reuse possible, maintaining anyway high activity and selectivity in the bio-crude production. The aim of this review is to critically summarize the effect of heterogenous catalyst addition on the hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass, looking specifically at the improvement in bio-crude yield and quality. On the basis of literature data about the effect of heterogeneous catalyst addition on bio-crude yield and quality in the hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass, a common catalytic action was identified allowing to group the several catalysts into four classes (alkaline metal oxides, transition metals, lanthanides oxides and zeolites). The hydrodeoxygenation activity of the catalysts, their effect on bio-crude yield and quality and the operating conditions used are highlighted. The highest bio-crude yields are reported using transition metals and lanthanide oxides which are able to guarantee, at the same time, a high-quality bio-crude