Captive-taking in the Late Roman Republic and Early Principate: Historical Realities and Elite Representations

Captives in Roman warfare are often overlooked yet played a key role in Roman society. Scholarship has previously considered institutions which involved captive-taking, including slavery and Imperialism, but there has not yet been a comprehensive study of the stages involved in acquiring captives. Previous scholarship has been confined by linguistic parameters, such as studies which have focussed on those labelled as ‘hostages’ or enslaved people exclusively. I have taken an holistic approach and use ‘captive’ as an umbrella term which refers to individuals captured by the Romans during warfare, including those who were, or have been in recent scholarship, described as: hostages, enslaved people, or prisoners of war. This has enabled me to compare the treatment of individuals or groups of people who were not explicitly labelled using language associated with captive or hostage-taking, but who held a similar status in Roman society. The different stages of captive-taking have been defined by the treatment captive people experienced at the hands of the Romans. Captive-taking in the Roman world was used for or involved: military intelligence, massacre, sexual violence, enslavement, hostage-taking, and the appearance of captives in triumphs. I address each of these factors in turn, arguing that the Romans recognised a process of captive-taking which involved treatment designed to humiliate an enemy people, thereby rendering them more compliant with Roman demands. This thesis uses Greco-Roman literature, art, and iconography to outline and explore the process of captive-taking in Roman warfare. Greco-Roman evidence relating to captive-taking is written from a Roman perspective, or a viewpoint heavily influenced by Roman culture. Therefore, it has been necessary in this thesis to utilise examples which were written by the elite and promotional in nature to consider the historical realities and expectations implicit within such sources and to develop a fuller picture of captive-taking practices. The Roman elite were acutely aware of representation, and the treatment of captives was also influenced by such consideration. I have also made use of comparative examples of captive-taking and the processes briefly outlined above from modern history and current affairs to further discussion where Roman sources on the subject are limited