Climate variation effects on fungal fruiting

Earth's climate is changing. Effects of climate change on fungal distribution and activity are hard to predict because they are mediated in many different ways, including: fungal physiology, reproduction and survival, host physiology, spatial and temporal distribution of hosts, resource availability and competition. Currently it is hard to monitor such effects on fungal mycelium in the field, but fruit bodies provide a useful surrogate. Here we review the effects of climate change on phenological changes in fungal fruiting and fruit body yield, and on fungal hosts and distribution, particularly of saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes. We report that fruiting phenology is changing in many European countries: on average, the fruiting season is extending, though for some species it is contracting; different species and ecological groups behave differently; time of fruiting depends on geographical location; some fungi now fruit early in the year as well as in autumn, and spring fruiting is getting earlier; some fungi appear to be changing hosts; fruit body yields vary dramatically from year to year; the amount, duration and frequency of fruiting are influenced by numerous environmental factors. We also consider difficulties in assessing phenological and distributional data, and provide suggestions for future research directions at the interface of laboratory experiments and field observations, including molecular approaches and monitoring systems