Applying deep learning and benchmark machine learning algorithms for landslide susceptibility modelling in Rorachu river basin of Sikkim Himalaya, India

Landslide is considered as one of the most severe threats to human life and property in the hilly areas of the world. The number of landslides and the level of damage across the globe has been increasing over time. Therefore, landslide management is essential to maintain the natural and socio-economic dynamics of the hilly region. Rorachu river basin is one of the most landslide-prone areas of the Sikkim selected for the present study. The prime goal of the study is to prepare landslide susceptibility maps (LSMs) using computer-based advanced machine learning techniques and compare the performance of the models. To properly understand the existing spatial relation with the landslide, twenty factors, including triggering and causative factors, were selected. A deep learning algorithm viz. convolutional neural network model (CNN) and three popular machine learning techniques, i.e., random forest model (RF), artificial neural network model (ANN), and bagging model, were employed to prepare the LSMs. Two separate datasets including training and validation were designed by randomly taken landslide and non-landslide points. A ratio of 70:30 was considered for the selection of both training and validation points. Multicollinearity was assessed by tolerance and variance inflation factor, and the role of individual conditioning factors was estimated using information gain ratio. The result reveals that there is no severe multicollinearity among the landslide conditioning factors, and the triggering factor rainfall appeared as the leading cause of the landslide. Based on the final prediction values of each model, LSM was constructed and successfully portioned into five distinct classes, like very low, low, moderate, high, and very high susceptibility. The susceptibility class-wise distribution of landslides shows that more than 90% of the landslide area falls under higher landslide susceptibility grades. The precision of models was examined using the area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve and statistical methods like root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE). In both datasets (training and validation), the CNN model achieved the maximum AUC value of 0.903 and 0.939, respectively. The lowest value of RMSE and MAE also reveals the better performance of the CNN model. So, it can be concluded that all the models have performed well, but the CNN model has outperformed the other models in terms of precision