The Khwe of Namibia, foragers between game, tourism and politics

__Abstract__ In this paper we examine the plight of the Khwe Bushmen, a group of (former) hunter-gatherers in the Bwabwata National Park in Northern Namibia. The Khwe have lived for a long time in the area of Bwabwata, so are highly affected by the park’s conservation activities that altered their environment seriously. Although they were historically hardly involved in decision making on or the implementation of such activities, this was supposed to change with the rise of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) in the 1990s. Yet, many of its aims did not materialize and the approval of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) in 2011 aimed at increased conservation in the area. An important element in these plans is to boost ‘green economic’ growth by increasing tourism, also involving the Khwe Bushmen. As a theoretical starting point, we use Ingold’s dwelling perspective, based on hunter-gatherer ontologies, in which the world comes into being because an organism/person is continuously interacting with his/her environment, through bodily activity. Dwelling is contrasted with building, in which (wo)man constructs the world cognitively before (s)he can live in it. We apply a third notion, namely lodging, to refer to a situation in which people live in an essentially foreign environment. We argue that today many changes in the environment of the Khwe are triggered beyond their control, instead of through their interaction with their environment. In this concept, the environment is dominant and the people have no option but to adapt to changes in their environment outside their control. Using these three notions of dwelling, building and lodging we analyse various conservation and tourism developments in the environment of the Khwe, historically as well as more recently. In so doing, we show the transformation of the cultural understanding the people have of their environment, of their interaction with it (and with the various actors and stakeholders) and with each other