Extracellular BMP antagonists, multifaceted orchestrators in the tumor and its microenvironment

The bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), a subgroup of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily, are involved in multiple biological processes such as embryonic development and maintenance of adult tissue homeostasis. The importance of a functional BMP pathway is underlined by various diseases, including cancer, which can arise as a consequence of dysregulated BMP signaling. Mutations in crucial elements of this signaling pathway, such as receptors, have been reported to disrupt BMP signaling. Next to that, aberrant expression of BMP antagonists could also contribute to abrogated signaling. In this review we set out to highlight how BMP antagonists affect not only the cancer cells, but also the other cells present in the microenvironment to influence cancer progression.Cellular mechanisms in basic and clinical gastroenterology and hepatolog