Chicken, Egg or a Bit of Both? Motivation in bilingual education (TTO) in the Netherlands

Conducted within the context of the general academic secondary school track in the Netherlands (HAVO), this study sought to investigate motivational differences between learners in bilingual (TTO) and in Dutch-language education (NTO). TTO being by now a well- established educational route, certain stereotypes and assumptions exist with regard to the type of learner it attracts. One of these assumptions is that TTO learners are particularly motivated to learn, although lack of previous research in this area means that there is little evidence to confirm that this is the case. As a bilingual approach to education that draws much of its inspiration from Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), and considering recent emphasis on contextual factors and the learning environment in (L2) motivation studies, it might also be assumed that the TTO learning context could have a motivating effect among learners. Again, however, there is little evidence regarding the motivational impact of teaching and learning in TTO specifically. This two-phase study employed a range of methods, from inclusive research using discussions and online forums, to quantitative data collection using learner questionnaires. These were administered to approximately 800 learners in the first three years of HAVO, across four schools. TTO learners appeared to display more characteristics that aligned with various theories of general and language-learning motivation. The most prominent of these characteristics were the integrative motive, a sense of agency, and future self-guides. The motivation of NTO learners appeared less strong, but may also develop differently to that of TTO learners. There was little evidence to suggest that learners’ experience of the TTO learning environment contributed significantly to the maintenance or development of these motivational characteristics, although it may have the potential to do so. Recommendations were made for how both learner-groups might be supported by schools in optimising their individual motivations.