NIR-Light-Driven Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species Using Ru(II)-Decorated Lipid-Encapsulated Upconverting Nanoparticles

The biological application of ruthenium anticancer prodrugs for photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photoactivated chemotherapy (PACT) is restricted by the need to use poorly penetrating high-energy photons for their activation, i.e., typically blue or green light. Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs), which produce high-energy light under near-infrared (NIR) excitation, may solve this issue, provided that the coupling between the UCNP surface and the Ru prodrug is optimized to produce stable nanoconjugates with efficient energy transfer from the UCNP to the ruthenium complex. Herein, we report on the synthesis and photochemistry of the two structurally related ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes [Ru(bpy)2( 5 )](PF6)2 ([ 1 ](PF6)2) and [Ru(bpy)2( 6 )](PF6)2 ([ 2 ](PF6)2), where bpy = 2,2-bipyridine, 5 is 5,6-bis(dodecyloxy)-2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline, and 6 is 5,6-bis(dodecyloxy)-1,10-phenanthroline. [ 1 ](PF6)2 is photolabile as a result of the steric strain induced by ligand 5 , but the irradiation of [ 1 ](PF6)2 in solution leads to the nonselective and slow photosubstitution of one of its three ligands, making it a poor PACT compound. On the other hand, [ 2 ](PF6)2 is an efficient and photostable PDT photosensitizer. The water-dispersible, negatively charged nanoconjugate UCNP@lipid/[ 2 ] was prepared by the encapsulation of 44 nm diameter NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+ UCNPs in a mixture of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine phospholipids, cholesterol, and the amphiphilic complex [ 2 ](PF6)2. A nonradiative energy transfer efficiency of 12% between the Tm3+ ions in the UCNP and the Ru2+ acceptor [ 2 ]2+ was found using time-resolved emission spectroscopy. Under irradiation with NIR light (969 nm), UCNP@lipid/[ 2 ] was found to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), as judged by the oxidation of the nonspecific ROS probe 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCFH2–). Determination of the type of ROS produced was precluded by the negative surface charge of the nanoconjugate, which resulted in the electrostatic repulsion of the more specific but also negatively charged 1O2 probe tetrasodium 9,10-anthracenediyl-bis(methylene)dimalonate (Na4(ADMBMA))