Phenomenology and geographical gradients of atmospheric deposition in southwestern Europe: Results from a multi-site monitoring network

This article presents the results of atmospheric deposition from a 15-sites network which cover remote, agricultural, urban and industrial areas in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, with the aim of exploring geographical, climatic and natural vs anthropogenic gradients. Annual average fluxes of global deposition, discriminating insoluble (3,5–20,7 g m year) and soluble-inorganic (7,1–45,5 g m year) aerosols are discussed, seasonal patterns are regarded, and an attempt to estimate the impact of the main sources is presented. The wide range of atmospheric deposition fluxes (DF) regarding soluble (DF) and insoluble (DF) has been investigated taking into consideration the contribution from nearby to long-distance sources, such as African dust, or regional-to-nearby ones, which include agricultural dust in the Ebro Valley, industrial emissions at different parts, urban dust at all cities, or saline dust resuspension from a dissicated lake bed. DF is made up of marine aerosols, prevailing in coastal areas, with few exceptions in the Ebro Valley; nitrogen-species, homogeneously distributed across the network, with few exceptions due to agricultural sources; mineral dust, enhanced in the Ebro Valley owing to regional and agricultural emissions; and phospathe, displaying comparable values to other studies in general, but three hotspots at regional background environments have been identified. DF particles followed the aridity pattern, especially where anthropogenic emissions take place. Our estimates indicate that the regional dust to DF in the Ebro Valley represented 23–30%, overpassing 50% at intensive agricultural areas. Similarly, urban-metropolitan contributions accounted for 37–45% at the four cities, and 55% at the industrial one. African dust deposition was enhanced in the Central Pyrenees (75–80%) as a result of the magnification of atmospheric washout processes, and in south-eastern Iberia (69%) owing to the higher frequency of dust outbreaks.This work has been possible thanks to financial support from the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Funds for Regional Development (AEI/FEDER, UE) via the DONAIRE (CGL2015-68993-R) project. We would like to thank Pedro Zuazo and Javier Vera, from the Regional Government of Navarra; Guillermo Sánchez and Pilar Pérez Colomina, from the Regional Government of Aragón; Paula Elías, from the Regional Government of the Balearic Islands; Nieves Fernández, from the Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza; Alejandro Herrero y Antonio Manuel López, from the Ayuntamiento de Frigiliana; Amparo Mora, from the Picos de Europa National Park; Elena Villagrasa, from the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park; Javier Gómez and Edurne Gerendiain, from Garrapo S.L.; and Cristina Salas, from VIESGO S.L. for their administrative support and the consent to access the facilities used in this project. A special thank is given to the group of technicians giving support in this project: Ángel Tejedor, from the Picos de Europa National Park; Fran Bayo, from Aguirre S.L.; and the personnel of the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park. The authors gratefully acknowledge the BSC dust deposition products (http://www.bsc.es/projects/earthscience/visor/dust/med8/dep/archive/), the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) for the provision of the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model and/or READY website (http://www.ready.noaa.gov) used to interpret some data of this publication, and the Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET, www.aemet.es) for the provision of meteorological data from different observatories. Maps generated for this article have been produced thanks to the QGIS (http://qgis.osgeo.org) Development Team (2018), v 3.10, by using the OpenStreetMap Hydda base copy. Finally, we would like to thank the three reviewers of this manuscript for their helpful suggestions