Historical experience of vertical breakwaters (in the UK)

The United Kingdom is a maritime nation which has depended on its harbours for defence and trade for most of recorded time. Whilst many early British harbours were established in sheltered estuaries, the rise of sea power and expansion of fishing and marine trading demanded the establishment of coastal harbours around the UK, and overseas. This presentation describes the evolution and construction of (the mostly vertical and battered) breakwaters around the UK, starting around 1600 and through the 1700s, but drawing particularly on those constructed during the major period of harbour construction 1830 – 1900