Symbiosis which Complements, or Parasitism which Weakens? International Perspectives on Relationships between Shadow Education and Schooling

Around the world, recent decades have brought considerable expansion of the shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring is provided in a range of formats. Some is institutionalised, e.g. through frontistiria and comparable bodies, while some is provided informally by university students, teachers and others. The phenomenon of shadow education has long been familiar in Greece, which is estimated to have the highest shadow education enrolment rate in Europe. However, neither in Greece nor in other countries has the phenomenon received adequate research attention. This paper provides a comparative framework for understanding the nature and implications of shadow education in societies of different types. It draws on examples from around the world, noting that shadow education has now become a global phenomenon. The paper especially focuses on relationships between shadow education and schooling. In some contexts, shadow education is viewed as symbiotic and complementary to schooling; but in other contexts it is viewed as a parasite that weakens schooling. These observations lead to questions for planners and managers of education systems. Are forms of regulation desirable for the shadow education sector, and if so what should be the structure and content of the regulations? Should schools be encouraged to collaborate with the shadow education sector, and if so how? Or should schools distance themselves from the shadow, and do their best to provide all the services needed and desired by societies so that shadow education is not necessary