Bone Tissue Engineering: Generation of Autologous Bone from Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Bone tissue engineering is a developing technology with the promise of generating autologous bone grafts from small bone marrow samples. The ability to culture bone tissue from small marrow samples removes many of the problems associated with current autologous bone grafting techniques specifically donor site morbidity, supply and quality bone tissue. Whilst bone tissue engineering is being researched elsewhere, the exciting prospect of bone banking is novel. We see the cryopreservation of cultured bone for use in later life as an intriguing opportunity for people employed in hazardous jobs such as the armed forces and those engaging in potentially traumatic interests like skiing. To begin bone banking research, a successful bone tissue engineering protocol was required. There were three aspects to this work; defining a protocol for isolation of an appropriate cell population, generation of a suitable three dimensional scaffold and design of a perfusion culture system. This thesis examines these three initial aspects. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs), isolated from rat femoral bone marrow, were expanded and differentiated down the osteoblastic lineage by 28 days culture in a dexamethasone based osteogenic media. Over this osteogenic culture period, cells developed a cuboidal osteoblast-like morphology. Immunohistochemical staining showed these cells increased the expression of the known bone markers; collagen I, osteocalcin, osteopontin, osteonectin and bone sialoprotein. Additionally, osteogenic cultures showed a 200 fold increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) concentration. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed the deposition of a highly fibrillar matrix surrounding the osteoblast-like cells in osteogenic cultures. Immunohistochemically, this matrix stained positively for collagen I and alizarin red staining showed mineralization of this matrix. Contrastingly, no change in morphology, no extracellular matrix and no increase in ALP concentration were noted in control conditions. For bone tissue culture, a chitosan-hydroxyapatite scaffold was generated through a freeze drying process. Micro Computer Tomography (µCT) and computer analysis showed the mean pore diameter was 228 µm. SEM surface analysis showed the hydroxyapatite distributed evenly within the scaffold. After the scaffold was subjected to degradation and cytotoxicity testing, MSCs were seeded onto cover slips coated in the chitosan-hydroxyapatite scaffold. MSCs were seen to adhere to and proliferate on this scaffold. MSCs were then seeded on to chitosan-hydroxyapatite scaffolds and cultured under perfusion conditions in the designed perfusion culture system. After a 10 day culture period no cells were detected on the scaffold. This is believed to be due to the low initial cell seeding density. This research has shown the successful differentiation of MSCs down the osteoblastic lineage, fabrication of a suitable chitosan-hydroxyapatite material, cell adherence to this scaffold material and development of a perfusion cell culture system. However, further optimisation of the perfusion culture protocol is needed. Successful perfusion culture would then allow experimentation with cryopreserved cultured bone and further investigation of the feasibility of bone banking