Effects of Adult Age and Level of Skill on the Ability to Cope With High-Stress Conditions in a Precision Sport

Younger and older highly skilled and moderately skilled miniature golf players were studied in training and competition. All of the players showed an increase of heart rate and rated anxiety from training to competition. A performance decline in competition was observed for both older players and less accomplished players. Results from a cognitive task (incidental recall of shots) suggest that older players are less proficient in coping with the high-stress conditions in competition, due to an age-related decline in task-relevant cognitive abilities. In a recent field study, Backman and Molander (1986) examined highly skilled miniature golf players varying in age in training, minor competitions (MCs), and large competitions (LCs). Results showed that older adult players deteriorated markedly in LCs, whereas youth players, junior players, and younger adult players performed equally well in all three activities. In addition, all groups showed a similar increase of arousal from training and MCs to LCs, as indicated by measures of heart rate and ratings of anxiety. In agreement with Broadbent's (1971) theory of arousal and performance, it was suggested that younger players may compensate for the nonoptimal levels of arousal during LCs through self-initiated efforts such as concentration and narrowing of attention. Older players, on the other hand, may have a deficit in this compensatory mechanism, due to an age-related decline in task-relevant cognitive abilities. There are several cognitive abilities that are critical to successful miniature golf performance: (a) memory of which shots were good and which shots were bad in previous rounds, in order to maintain the shot if it was good (or to adjust it if it was a miss) on a later round; (b) decisions about the swing and estimation of angles; (c) encoding and interpretation of the visual feedback from a miss, so that motor behavior could be changed for the next shot; and (d) focusing of attention on the game, while closing out distracting information. It is well-known that the aging process is associated with deficits in many of these task-relevant abilities: attention, memThis research was supported by grants from the Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences, and the Swedish Sports Research Council. We are indebted to David Chalom for his assistance in collecting data. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lars Backman, who is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Umea, Radhusesplanaden 2, S-902 47 Umea, Sweden. ory, and decision making Method Subjects The subjects were 12 younger adults and 12 older adults, all of them community residents in Umea, Sweden, with comparable socioeconomic background. Each age group comprised six highly skilled players and six moderately skilled players. In the highly skilled group the mean age of the younger subjects (4 men and 2 women) was 25.5 years (SD = 4.72), and the mean age of the older subjects (3 men and 3 women) was 50.7 years (SD = 4.18). In the moderately skilled group the mean age of the younger subjects (all men) was 27.7 years (SD = 4.55), and the mean age of the older subjects (5 men and 1 woman) was 51.5 years (SD = 3.51). Participation in the experiment was voluntary, and none of the subjects was on medication. 33