Patterns of Pesticide Use, Exposure, and Toxicity Jointly Determine Impacts on Honeybees and Other Pollinators

Pollinators like honeybees, wild bees, and pollen wasps contribute to one-third of the world’s food crop production. However, the health and abundance of pollinators has declined in recent decades due to factors such as poor nutrition, pests, pathogens, and pesticides. Patterns, or “domains,” of pesticide use and pesticide effects on pollinators are linked in a complex system through a third domain, pollinator pesticide exposure. This framework can provide insights into options for reducing risks to pollinators while also improving pest management strategies for crops