The diversity of smallholder farmers and their adoption of the sustainable intensification practices in Malawi

Low agricultural productivity and the associated poverty caused by the rapid degradation of soil fertility have negatively affected agricultural based livelihoods in Malawi. As a result, sustainable improved practices (SIPs) such as improved maize and legume seeds and conservation agriculture packages, among others, have been developed and promoted as suitable options to reverse the issue of low food production. Although there have been strong-minded efforts by scientists and agriculture extension staff to improve the adoption of these technologies, questions remain regarding their uptake among smallholder farmers. Furthermore, even in places where the technologies have been in practice, this process has been very slow, with big variations of adoption across all smallholder farmers. This study draws its empirical data from two sources: Firstly, from collaborative work between the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) and the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS)in Malawi. Secondly from the data collected by Western Sydney University in collaboration with assistance of Bunda College of Agriculture under the University of Malawi (now LUARNAR). Data collection was mainly through farmer household surveys and farmer focus group discussions conducted between 2011 and 2013. The research took place in 6 target districts on a total of 1293 (891 and 402) farmers in the north, central and southern Malawi. Therefore, this study sought to address three main objectives by administering and evaluating a structured questionnaire specifically to capture farm household data on: a) the diversity that exist among the smallholder farmers which influences their use of sustainable intensification practices, b) opportunities and constraints for the intensifications of improved maize-legume varieties among smallholder farmers for dietary intensification and ecological intensification, c) the stepwise adoption and factors that influence farmers decision to adopt the individual components of the adapted conservation agriculture package in Malawi. Three standalone empirical chapters are merged to form the core of this thesis which has been integrated and synthesised in the final chapter. Overall, this thesis contributes both to literature and methodology. Overall, this thesis contributes both to literature and methodology. Results from principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) technics consistently indicated that there is diversity among the smallholder farmers revealing four different farmer classes which influenced their adoption of the improved soil fertility technologies. These farm types were: a) type 1 farms (35.13%) were classed as ‗small subsistence-oriented family farms‘ practiced crop residue retention and crop rotation, b) type 2 (31.43%) were ‗small semi-subsistence family farms‘, type 3 (25.36%) were ‗survivalist‘ (small, independent, semi-specialized family farms whose main objective was family sustenance) and, c) type 4 (7.52%) were ‗production-oriented, small, dependent, semi-specialized family farms‘. Farm typologies indicated that farm types 1 and 2 practiced crop residue retention and crop rotation by intercropping of maize–legumes improved varieties, potentially making them the possible adopters of improved farm technologies among the rest of the farm types. Minimum tillage adoptions remained sparse. Type 3 farms, in addition to being family sustenance-oriented, specialised in a cash crop such as tobacco, cotton, legume which made them party commercial, which had a negative impact on practicing of improved farm technology. Type 4 farms were like type 3 but different high level of specialization as tenants in tobacco growing largely dictated by their landlords, which limited their adoption of improved farm technology. Evaluation of the opportunities and constraints for maize-legume intensification among the smallholder farmers for dietary fortification and ecological intensification was done by comparing results of three random effects regression models using multilevel logistic analysis. Two different methods - first multivariate and second econometric technics were applied to correct for potential bias in estimating the factors that influenced adoption of maize-legume intensification. The results of the models indicated that farmers who had a shorter distance to walk to the farm inputs market and village market, had a higher participation in the intensification of maize-legume by 72 % of the farmers. The thesis indicated that farmers decision to adopt or not to adopt each component combination from the adapted CA package (residue retention, minimum tillage, crop rotation and use of herbicides) was considered to be sequential and incremental. The results also revealed that the households‘ decision to adopt the individual component depended on farmers experience in growing cowpeas, soil depth and the households‘ food availability throughout the year. However, crop residue retention was the highest adopted (85%), followed by minimum tillage ate 70% and use of herbicide at 69%, with crop rotation the least at 30%