The cooler side of mycorrhizas : their occurrence and functioning at low temperatures

Mycorrhizal associations occur in a range of habitats in which soils are subject to low temperature ([less than or equal to]15 [degrees]C) for a significant part of the year. Despite this, most of our understanding of mycorrhizal fungi and their interactions with their plant hosts is based on physiological investigations conducted in the range 20-37 [degrees]C using fungi of temperate origin. Comparatively little consideration has been given to the cold edaphic conditions in which many mycorrhizas survive and prosper, and the physiological and ecological consequences of their low temperature environments. In this review, we consider the distribution and persistence of arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal mycorrhizal associations in cold environments and highlight progress in understanding adaptations to freezing resistance and nutrient acquisition at low temperature in mycorrhizal fungi