Psychophysiological patterns related to individual zone optimal performance in self-paced task: a step forward with map model

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências do DesportoNas últimas décadas, a análise de fatores psicológicos, fisiológicos, cinestésicos e comportamentais tem sido amplamente investigada, sobretudo em desportos de precisão (e.g.,Goodman, Haufler, Shim, & Hatfield, 2009; Hatfield & Kerick, 2007). Uma perspectiva multifatorial e multidimensional baseada em vários campos de conhecimento (e.g., comportamento motor, psicologia do desporto e psico-fisiologia) vem sendo utilizada na análise de experiências afetivas relacionadas à performance esportiva. Como tal, questionários, observações e dados fisiológicos são métodos importantes e comumente utilizados. De fato, o monitoramento de fatores psico-fisiológicos e comportamentais, particularmente os relacionados com a performance desportiva, é fundamental para o desenvolvimento de técnicas de bio-neuro feedback com o objetivo de (a) promover performance de excelência no deesporto, (b) aumentar o tempo de permanência na Zona Individual de Ótimo Funcionamento (IZOF), e (c) aprimorar habilidades mentais como auto-controle e ativação. Desportos caracterizados por pouca variabilidade ambiental vêm sendo estudados a fim de(a) estabelecer diferenças entre iniciantes e experts (e.g., Haufler, Spalding, Santa Maria, & Hatfield. 2000; Konttinen & Lyytinen, 1992; Goodman et al., 2009; Salazar, Landers, Petruzzello,Hans, Crews, & Kubitz, 1990), e (b) identificar critérios intra-individuals de performance ótima e sub-ótima (Guillot, Collet, Dittmar, Delhomme, Delemer, & Vernet-Maury, 2003; Konttinen,Lyytinen, & Viitasalo, 1998; Tremayne & Barry, 2001). De fato, diversos autores têm utilizado métodos idiossincráticos e probabilísticos no estudo das IZOFs (Bertollo, Robazza, Falasca, Stocchi, Babiloni et al. 2012; Edmonds, Mann, Tenenbaum, & Janelle, 2006; Medeiros Filho, Moraes, & Tenenbaum, 2008). Recentemente, um modelo 2x2 baseado em performance (ótima e sub-ótima) e controle da ativação (automático e controlado) foi proposto como uma alternativa a visões unilaterais do rendimento desportivo. De modo específico, o Modelo Múltiplo de Planos de Ação (MAP) foi desenvolvido para orientar o treinamento mental de desportistas de várias modalidades esportivas. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar fatores comportamentais, psico-fisiológicos, e corticais relacionados as IZOFs em desportos de precisão, tendo por base as preposições do MAP model. Método. Desportos de precisão têm sido contemplados (e.g., tiro ao alvo, arremesso de dardo) em estudos sobre excelência esportiva. No presente estudo, tendo por base as proposições do modelo MAP, os participantes descreveram fatores considerados essenciais (“core factors”) para a performance de excelência (vide Bortoli, Bertollo, Hanin & Robazza, 2012). Subsequentemente, os atletas participaram de uma sessão de familiarização (i.e., tiro ao alvo) cujo objetivo era identifcar fatores (psico-fisiológicos, corticais, emocionais, e posturais) relacionados com a categorização 2x2 proposta no modelo MAP. Antes de cada tiro ao alvo, os atletas reportaram seus estados afetivos numa escala Borg adaptada. Além disso, os atletas reportaram performance subjetiva e níveis de controle dos “core components”. ECG, SCL e análise cinestésica foram obtidos através dos sistemas Bioharness (zephyr technology) e Power lab (ADIntruments). Atividade cortical foi obtida através de equipamento de EEG contendo 32 canais (ASALAB, ANT). Um capacete Waveguard,capaz de minimizar artefatos relacionados a movimentação e atividade muscular, também foi utilizado. Resultados Os resultados demonstraram que padrões específicos de ativação cortical, emocional e postural estão relacionados com as diferentes categorias de performance propostas dentro do modelo MAP. Deste modo, é possível que atletas apresentem boas performaces desde que focalizem nos seus “core components” de ação. Valores de ativação reportados pelos atletas confirmaram SCL indexes. Performance tipo-1 e tipo-4 foram caracterizadas por valores maiores do que performance tipo-2 e tipo-3. Tradicionalmente, o SCL é considerado um dos melhores indicadores de ativação em desports de precisão, pois tal análise permite discriminar entre performances ótimas e medíocres. Deste modo, os valores observados para performances tipo-1 e tipo-4 sugerem que tais performances requerem maior mobilização energética quando comparados com os tipos 2 e 3. De fato, focalização, fadiga, e estresse são fatores associados com atividade simpática, e sobretudo com ativação eletrodérmica. Valores de frequência respiratória e posição corporal corroboraram os resultados obtidos para atividade eletrodérmica. Os nossos resultados acerca da atividade neural confirmaram diferenças em ondas cerebrais da banda alfa e beta. Performances tipo-1, tipo-2 e tipo-4 foram associadas com baixa ativação cortical. Este resultado está de acordo com ERD/ERS padrões obtidos tanto na banda alfa quanto na banda beta. Esse resultado também está de acordo com a noção de automatismo e fluidez de estados psico-bio-sociais. Todavia, tais resultados não corroboram a “hipótese de eficiência neural” que conecta performace ótima com uma “mui sui generis” atividade neural (Hatfield & Kerick, 2007). Em suma, o resultado do presente estudo indica que performace ótima e típica das categorizações tipo-1 e tipo-2. Deste modo, é possível que – além de atividade neural no momento exato do tiro – performances de excelência (i.e., ótima performance) também estejam relacionadas com padrões corticais de ativação nos segundos que antecedem um dado tiro ao alvo (vide atfield & Kerick, 2007). Conclusão Concluindo, os resultados do presente estudo corroboraram a visão de que performance funcional e possível mesmo diante da expressiva variabilidade comportamental, psico-fisiológica e cortical. Contudo, a análise da atividade simpática/parasimpática e cortical, considerando as proposições do modelo MAP, gerou novas pistas acerca de fatores neuro-biológicos relacionados com o controle de ativação e performance. Novos estudos devem expandir tal análise, através da consideração de marcadores biológicos como o cortisol, de modo a aprimorar o entendimento da performance humana por meio de uma perspectiva multimodal e multidimensional.During the last decades, the analysis of the psychological, physiological, kinematic, and behavioural mechanisms underlying the performance of elite athletes has received increasing attention, in particular in precision sports (e.g., Goodman, Haufler, Shim, & Hatfield, 2009; Hatfield & Kerick, 2007). A multimodal and multidimensional assessment derived from the interaction of different fields, such as motor behaviour, sport psychology, and psychophysiology, has been advocated to measure performance-related affect. Assessment includes self-reports, behavioural and kinematic observations, and physiological recordings (Lang, 2000). The monitoring of the entire spectrum of psychophysiological and behavioural features related to performance is also important in order to develop and implement biofeedback and neurofeedback techniques aimed at helping athletes to identify individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF), enhance their performance, self-regulate, and prevent choking under competitive pressure. The psychophysiological, behavioural, or kinematic features of self-paced tasks (e.g., shooting, golf putting, dart-throwing, archery) have been usually studied between-subjects by comparing the performance patterns of skilled performers to those of novices (e.g., Haufler,Spalding, Santa Maria, & Hatfield. 2000; Konttinen & Lyytinen, 1992; Goodman et al., 2009; Salazar, Landers, Petruzzello, Hans, Crews, & Kubitz, 1990), or within-subjects by contrasting individual’s best and worst performance patterns (Guillot, Collet, Dittmar, Delhomme, Delemer, & Vernet-Maury, 2003; Konttinen, Lyytinen, & Viitasalo, 1998; Tremayne & Barry, 2001). More recently, several authors have used an idiosyncratic probabilistic approach in the framework of the IZOF theory to investigate the relationship between performance and affect in different sports (Bertollo, Robazza, Falasca, Stocchi, Babiloni et al. 2012; Edmonds, Mann, Tenenbaum, & Janelle, 2006; Medeiros Filho, Moraes, & Tenenbaum, 2008). This uni-dimensional categorization of performance (expert/optimal vs. non-expert/suboptimal) has been recently challenged by a 2x2 conceptualization in which performance is classified in terms of both performance level (optimal and sub-optimal) and action control (automatized and controlled). This 2x2 performance arrangement has led Bortoli, Bertollo, Hanin and Robazza (2012) to develop a Multi-Action Plan(MAP) intervention model for performance optimization in the framework of IZOF theory (Hanin,2000). The aim of the present research project is to investigate the behavioural, psychophysiological, and cortical patterns related to Individual Zone Optimal Performance in selfpaced task in the framework of MAP model. Method. Self-paced sport’s athletes have been investigated (e.g. pistol and rifle shooters, dartthrowers). Athletes have been asked to accurately describe their optimal sequence of actions for the execution of a single shot from start to follow-through, and then to identify a small number of the most important core components they believe fundamental for optimal achievements following the MAP procedure (Bortoli, Bertollo, Hanin & Robazza, 2012). Then they have been requested to perform a large number of specific actions (i.e. shooting or dart-throwing) during a practice session in order to examine the underpinning psychophysiological, cortical, emotional, and postural patterns associated with the four (2x2) performance categories derived from the MAP model. Prior to each action, the athletes have been asked to rate their hedonic tone (affective state) on a modified 11 point Borg scale. After each action, they have also been requested to rate their perceived levels of both control and execution accuracy of their core components. ECG, SCL and kinematic data have been collected throughout performance using Bioharness (zephyr technology), and UFI Skin conductance meter in conjunction with bio amplifier connected to power lab (ADIntruments). EEG data have been collected using a 32 channels ASALAB system by Advance Neurotechnology(ANT). A cap (Waveguard) specifically developed to minimize movement and muscular artefact,was used. Results Results showed specific psychophysiological, cortical, emotional, and postural patterns (i.e. indexes associated to IZOF) related to the 2x2 performance categorization, thereby providing strong support to the predictions stemming from the MAP model. In particular hedonic tone and behavioural results demonstrated that performance level can remain good also when the athlete focuses his attention on the core components of the action rather than on “supervising” them. The emotional arousal reflected in the hedonic tone has also been mirrored Skin Conductance Level (SCL). Results revealed a lower SCL in type 1 performance than in type 2 and type 3 performances, with comparable SCL in type 1 and type 4 performances. Traditionally, SCL is considered one of the best indicators of arousal-activation in precision sport. It enables to discriminate between best and worst performances (Guillot et al., 2003; Tremayne & Barry, 2001), and it has been recently used as a valuable index to identify individual zones of optimal functioning (Bertollo et al., 2012; Edmonds et al., 2008). The finding that electrodermal activity is more elevated during type 2 and type 3 performances than during type 1 and type 4 performances suggests the existence of different mechanisms of energy mobilization and regulation. Focused attention, fatigue and stress are associated with an increased sympathetic activation, particularly electrodermal arousal, which is a reliable physiological response to stressors. Finding on respiratory rate and bodily position confirm this perspective. Findings on neural patterns revealed differences in cortical activity with respect to performance types both in high alpha band and beta band. Overall, the findings for type 1, type 2 and type 4 performances at shot's release support the notion that this event is characterized by a lower cortical activation. This notion, supported by the ERD/ERS patterns obtained in both the high alpha and beta bands, is associated with an automatic performance, characterized by the quiescence,automaticity and fluidity of psycho-bio-social states, but is only partially in line with the wellestablished “neural efficiency hypothesis” and the model of stress-induced cortical dynamics, which link optimal performance to a particular “mental print” that features the same psycho-bio-social states typical of type 1 and 4 performances (Hatfield & Kerick, 2007). Indeed, our results indicate that optimal performance is typical of types 1 and 2 only. Therefore, it seems that optimal performance could be related not just to a lower cortical activation at shot's release, but also to the patterns of cortical activation during the seconds preceding the shot according to the neurobiological model proposed by Hatfield and Kerick (2007). Conclusion In conclusion, our findings echo the notion that functional performance states are plausible within a broad range of behavioural, psychophysiological and cortical antecedents. However, the analysis of the sympathetic/parasympathetic balance and the cortical activations related to the psychophysiological states underlying distinct performance-related experiences, as defined in the MAP model, has brought new insights on the neurobiological correlates of the control and performance levels separately. Further investigation involving also the collection of biological marker, such as cortisol, in the multimodal and multidimensional assessment, will help to elucidate the entire neurobiological network involved in optimal performance