ORNAMENTAL AND AMULETIC JEWELRY PENDANTS OF LATE BRONZE AGE PALESTINE: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY

In marked contrast to the preceding Middle Bronze Age and for the first time in the archaeological history of Palestine, pendants appear in considerable numbers and in an enormous array of materials and styles. Besides explaining the dramatic upsurge in pendant popularity, an assessment of the Palestinian evidence serves as a touchstone for cultural and technological advances in neighboring Egypt and Syria. Since most LBA Palestinian pendant types were mass-produced and passed in and out of style, sufficient quantities provide a good statistical base for typological and chronological distinctions, in conjunction with a critical appraisal of archaeological contexts. This study is centered around an analysis of the geographical, contextual (temple, burial, house/palace, etc.), chronological, and material distributions of the pendant classes and types, especially in comparison to evidence from Egypt and Syria. Since Beth Shan contributes 51% of the pendants, most of which are unpublished, the dating criteria for this site are reviewed. Although pottery dating is not superseded, many of the pendant types provide a tightly dated typology. The combined results of the distributional analyses reveal that, in LB IB, northern and southern Palestinian repertoires of pendant types can be distinguished (especially in precious metals and semi-precious stones at Tell el-(\u27c)Ajjul and Megid-do); these types continue throughout the LBA in approximately the same numbers. Beginning in LB IB, Egyptian-related types appear in small numbers at major southern sites, primarily in burial contexts, and reach a climax in LB IIB when generally mold-made blue-green glazed faience types are found mainly in temples in both the north (Beth Shan) and south (Lachish). Northern and southern repertoires of Egyptian pendant types can be distinguished until the end of the LBA, and may be related to specific areas in Egypt. The pendant evidence fits with a minimalist view of Egyptian control in Palestine preceding LB IIB, whereas the efflorescence of Egyptian types in the latter period is in complete accord with the textual evidence. The lack of Egyptian types in the hill country of Western Palestine, the Galilee, the Huleh and central Jordan Valleys, and Transjordan (where more extensive exploration is needed) indicates that the Egyptian influence here was transitory at best, while the Syro-Palestinian culture continued unabated. Assemblages of pendant types at major sites, apart from concentrations in LB IIB temples, suggest that necklaces with a maximum of three pendant types (sometimes mixed Egyptian and Syro-Palestinian) were worn by native Palestinians and possibly resident foreigners. The sudden appearance of foreign pendant types and their specific distributions strongly favor their introduction by single individuals (artisans, government officials, etc.) who in effect created the market for later trade and manufacture. Several suggestions are made to account for the absence of Mycenaean and Cypriote pendants in LBA Palestine. Most of the materials used to make pendants were inherently valuable, as corroborated by the paucity of pendants in burials and houses as contrasted with temples. Available technological data suggest that gold ateliers existed at Tell el-(\u27c)Ajjul in LB IA and perhaps at Lachish and Beth Shan later, although itinerant smiths could be responsible. Native faience industries probably existed at Beth Shan and Lachish; the evidence for glassmaking is much more meager. The magical/religious significance of pendant types is briefly discussed with particular emphasis on the lack of textual evidence from Palestine itself and the necessity of recognizing regional variants