Imagining ecologies : traditions of ecopoetry in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis submitted to Massey University in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Massey University of Palmerston North

New Zealand ecopoetry tells the stories of connection with and separation from the land. From the late nineteenth century until the present, opposing and changing notions of ecological loss and belonging have underlain New Zealand’s long lineage of ecopoetry in English. Yet, from a critical perspective, such a tradition is essentially invisible. Scholars have tended to fragment New Zealand ecopoetry according to themes and time periods. But taken as a whole, the tradition not only provides local stories of human relationships with nature transformed by colonialism, it challenges some established conceptions of ecopoetry. Discussions within the relatively new field of post-colonial ecocriticism revealthe importance of local writing. Scholars have emphasized that particular national histories especially in places of settler colonialism have “contributed to the hybridization and creolization of plants, peoples, and place in ways that profoundly denaturalize absolute ontological claims,” (DeLoughrey 2014 325). This approach recognises that rather than a global framework of ecological change, experiences differ according to specific locations and across different timeframes. With this approach in mind, the critical component of this thesis investigates the field of ecopoetry and maps New Zealand’s ecopoetic lineage. It reports on close readings and analysis of contemporary ecopoetry by three New Zealand poets: Brian Turner (b. 1944), Robert Sullivan (b. 1967) and Airini Beautrais (b. 1982). It finds that New Zealand ecopoetry portrays particular tensions about understandings of nature and the human relationship with it. These tensions challenge in specific ways some of the homogenizing, Eurocentric conceptions that prevail in foundational work carried out in the field of ecopoetry since the 1990s. The creative component is a collection of original ecopoems entitled Anti-Pastoral. These poems reflect on my own connection to land through farming over four generations of European settlement in New Zealand. Some poems focus on the degrading effects on people and animals of relatively recent shifts towards large-scale intensive farming. In the critical component I ask: How do we define and depict New Zealand’s long tradition of ecopoetry? How does that tradition speak back to and challenge existing definitions of ecopoetry and of ecology? In the creative component, I ask: How do I, a Pākehā poet and farmer, join that tradition