The contribution of narcissistic defenses to gender differences in depression.

Narcissism is a personality variable that unifies psychodynamic, social learning, and gender role theories of depression, and is proposed to affect gender differences in rates of depression through (1) the externalization of negative affect as anger, and (2) through participation in healthy self-esteem. Results of an experience sampling study (n = 58) suggested that expressing relatively more anger than sadness to negative life events predicted less depressive symptomatology, and that this response style was more common among men. The relationship of entitlement and authority to depression was mediated by the anger-depressed mood difference, with entitlement predicting more depressive symptomatology, and authority predicting marginally less depressive symptoms. Self-sufficiency appeared to have a direct negative relationship to depression. Males reported higher levels of authority than women in a community sample of 214 newlyweds, and results confirmed hypotheses that higher levels of authority and self-sufficiency would predict higher concurrent self-esteem for both genders. Controlling for initial level of self-esteem, authority predicted higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms across four years for men, whereas self-sufficiency predicted higher self-esteem across time among women. Authority, controlling for self-esteem, predicted more depressive symptomatology for women across time. These results suggested the relationship between authority and depression may be socially mediated. A third study explored the relationship of vulnerable narcissism (VN) to motivation, values, and hostility. College women reported higher mean levels of VN. Results suggested that VN is related to lower affiliation and power motivation, but higher achievement motivation. VN expressed covert hostility, but did not believe they were overtly hostile. The discussion suggests that VN may represent covert gr and iosity that cannot be maintained in an unresponsive environment, or possible borderline dynamics. A fourth study (n = 190) suggested VN is a strong predictor of depressive symptomatology for both males and females. Superiority and self-sufficiency were negatively related to depressive symptoms for college students, but men reported higher means, as predicted. Both VN and gr and iose narcissism were better predictors of depressive symptoms than either attributional style or rumination. Results are discussed in terms of the etiology and social mediation of narcissism and its relation to life stages.PhDClinical psychologyPersonality psychologyUniversity of Michiganhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/156595/1/9409645.pd