Introduction: Oceans governance: Where have we been and where are we going?

Over the past 30 years it has been globally acknowledged that the world’s oceans are in crisis, and it has been suggested that the solution to this crisis lies in oceans governance. Oceans governance includes, but is not limited to, the institutions, laws, policies, state and non-state actors involved in the governance of all living and non-living elements that are connected to oceans and coasts. Under this ‘umbrella’ of oceans governance, a number of conceptual frameworks have evolved such as: ecosystem-based management; integrated policy approaches; zoning; and marine spatial planning. These interrelated approaches have been tried and tested in the Australasian region with varying degrees of success. There are often conflicting interests in oceans governance. On the broader scale there are differences in marine management – for instance whether to approach it from a scientific, security, economic, policy or political perspective, or a combination of all of these. On a sectoral level, different sectoral groups have challenges within ocean governance or with each other – it is not unusual for environmental non-governmental organisations to come into conflict with fisheries or offshore oil companies. On a jurisdictional level, national, state and local governments also have different responsibilities and concerns over the management of their ocean areas. As the following papers in this special edition demonstrate, jurisdictional overlaps or inconsistencies have been a significant part of the oceans governance ‘problem’, particularly in Australia. Marrying these conflicting interests through integrated approaches from an ecosystem-based perspective may have been echoed over the last three generations as being the most effective form of oceans governance, but in reality this process has been difficult to achieve. This special edition on oceans governance examines the past, present and future challenges of oceans governance in Australia and New Zealand. Despite attempting to implement national oceans policies based on ecosystem-based approaches, multiple-use objectives and integration, sectoral approaches continue to be the dominant way ocean and marine issues are managed in both countries