Sexual Harassment and Disparate Impact: Should Non-Targeted Workplace Sexual Conduct Be Actionable Under Title VII?

I. Introduction . . . . . 1153 II. The Evolving Understanding of Sexual Harassment as a Form of Sex Discrimination . . . . . 1155 A. Recognition of Quid Pro Quo Sexual Harassment as Actionable Under Title VII: The Relevance of Desire . . . . . 1156 B. Recognition of Hostile Work Environment Sexual Harassment as a Form of Sex Discrimination: Sexual Desire, Sexual Conduct, and Conduct Based upon Sex . . . . . 1159 C. A Renewed Focus on the Requirement of Sex Discrimination: Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc . . . . . 1165 III. Sexual Harassment as a Form of Disparate Treatment. 1170 A. Introduction to Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact . . . . . 1170 B. Oncale: Discrimination as Only Disparate Treatment . . . . . 1172 C. Proving Disparate Treatment in a Sexual Harassment Case . . . . . 1174 D. Pornography and Discussions About Sex as Disparate Treatment . . . . . 1179 IV. Analysis of Non-Targeted Workplace Sexual Conduct Under a Disparate Impact Approach . . . . . 1187 A. The Law of Disparate Impact Discrimination . . . . . 1187 B. A Facially Neutral Employment Practice . . . . . 1195 C. . . . that Causes a Disparate Impact on the Basis of Sex . . . . . 1207 1. Likelihood that Workplaces Will Include Facially Neutral Conduct that Has a Disparate Impact on Women . . . . . 1207 2. The Meaning of Impact in a Sexual Harassment Case . . . . . 1217 3. Proving Disparate Impact . . . . . 1221 a. Proving Disparate Impact in the Typical Case . . . . . 1221 b. Proving Disparate Impact in a Sexual Harassment Case . . . . . 1225 4. Another Approach to Proving Disparate Impact in a Sexual Harassment Case: Robinson v. Jacksonville Shipyards, Inc. and Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite Co . . . . . 1231 D. . . . and Is Not Job Related or Consistent with Business Necessity . . . . . 1236 V. Potential Problems with Finding Non-Targeted Workplace Sexual Conduct Actionable . . . . . 1241 A. Conflict with the First Amendment . . . . . 1241 B. Overprotecting and Stigmatizing Women . . . . . 1246 C. Reemphasizing the Sexual in Sexual Harassment . . . . . 1253 D. A Practical Problem: No Jury Trials for Disparate Impact Claims . . . . . 1255 VI. Conclusion . . . . . 125