Brackish Water Aquaculture 07191Livelihood Status of Fishers in India192About 75 per cent of the world production of farmed shrimp comes from Asian countries the two leading nations being China and Thailand, closely followed by Vietnam, Indonesia, and India (Table 7.1). The remaining 25 per cent is produced in the western hemisphere, where the South-American countries (Brazil, Ecuador, Mexico) dominate. In terms of export, Thailand is by far the leading nation with a market share of more than 30 per cent, followed by China, Indonesia, and India, accounting each for about 10 per cent. Other major export nations are Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Ecuador. Thailand exports nearly all of its production, while China uses most of its shrimp in the domestic market. The only other major export nation that has a strong domestic market for farmed shrimp is Mexico.Table 7.1: Aquaculture shrimp production by the major producer nationsRegion Country 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07AsiaChina 185 220 207 88 64 78 89 96 130 152 192 267 337 687 814 892 1'080 1'265Thailand 115 161 185 223 264 259 238 225 250 274 309 279 264 330 360 401 501 501Vietnam 32 36 37 39 45 55 46 45 52 55 90 150 181 232 276 327 349 377Indonesia 84 116 120 117 107 121 125 127 97 121 118 129 137 168 218 266 326 315India 35 40 47 62 83 70 70 67 83 79 97 103 115 113 118 131 132 108Bangladesh 19 20 21 28 29 32 42 48 56 58 59 55 56 56 58 63 65 64Philippines 48 47 77 86 91 89 77 41 38 39 41 42 37 37 37 39 40 42Myanmar 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 5 5 6 7 19 30 49 49 48Taiwan 15 22 16 10 8 11 13 6 5 5 6 8 10 13 13 13 11 11AmericaBrazil 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 7 16 25 40 60 90 76 63 65 65Ecuador 76 105 113 83 89 106 108 133 144 120 50 45 63 77 90 119 150 150Mexico 4 5 8 12 13 16 13 17 24 29 33 48 46 46 62 90 112 114U.S. <1 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2Middle EastSaudi Arabia <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 2 2 2 4 5 9 9 11 12 15Iran 0 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 2 4 8 6 7 9 4 6 3Oceania Australia <1 <1 <1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3Brackish Water AquacultureM. Krishnan, Shyam. S. Salim, R. Narayanakumar,Nagesh Barik and K. Ponnusamy07Livelihood Status of Fishers in India194Scope for brackish water shrimp farming Global shrimp production as well as trading values and volumes have grown signiÀcantly in the past 20 years. The major shrimp producing countries – China, Indonesia, India and Thailand have also experienced substantial increases in recent years. The main shrimp species produced worldwide is white-leg shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei which has replaced the native giant black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon especially in China and Thailand. Recently, government of India has given permission to import the species to India. In recent years, production of P.monodon declined mainly due to disease problems. The Better Management Practices (BMPs), when well designed and implemented can support producers to increase productivity by reducing risk of shrimp health problems as demonstrated in some farms in Andhra Pradesh by the joint MPEDA/NACA project. The latest development is organic shrimp farming which has already produced good results in some countries. The over exploitation of shrimp from coastal waters and the ever increasing demand for shrimp and shrimp products in the world market has resulted in the wide gap between the demand and supply in the international market. This has necessitated the need for exploring newer avenues for increasing shrimp production. The estimated brackish water area suitable for undertaking shrimp cultivation in India is around 11.91 lakh ha. spread over 10 states and union territories viz. West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat (Table 7.2). Of this only around 1.356 lakh ha are under shrimp farming now and hence lot of scope exists for entrepreneurs to venture into this Àeld of activity. The following table gives the state-wise potential area available for shrimp.Table 7.2: Potential area for shrimp farming in IndiaSl. No. State Estimated brackish water area (ha.)1. West Bengal 405,0002. Odisha 32,6003. Andhra Pradesh 150,0004. Tamil Nadu 56,0005. Puducherry 8006. Kerala 65,0007. Karnataka 8,0008. Goa 18,5009. Maharashtra 80,00010. Gujarat 376,00011. Total 1191900The potential area for shrimp farming is maximum for West Bengal followed by Gujarat and then by Andhra Pradesh. The state wise area developed, area utilised, production and productivity are given in Table 7.3.Brackish Water Aquaculture195Table 7.3: State wise details of shrimp farming: 2009-10Sl. No. StateArea developed (ha)Area utilized (ha)Production (MT)Productivity (MT/ha/Yr)1. West Bengal 51,659.00 47,488.00 33,685.00 0.71 2. Odisha 13,843.00 4,769.00 6,149.00 1.29 3. Andhra Pradesh 58,145.20 33,754.00 39,537.00 1.17 4. Tamil Nadu 6,109.33 2,381.49 2,702.38 1.13 5. Kerala 15,099.39 9,544.84 1,581.00 1.07 6. Karnataka 3,708.84 1,484.00 1,581.00 0.74 7. Goa 867.00 272.00 319.00 1.17 8. Maharashtra 1,329.56 650.86 1,243.79 1.91 9. Gujarat 2,214.48 1,915.79 3,605.72 1.88 10. Total 1,52,975.48 1,02,359.98 95,918.89 0.94 The detailed report under brackish water aquaculture for the following states namely Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala and Tamil Nadu is discussed below:I. Brackish water aquaculture in Andhra PradeshAndhra Pradesh contributes more than half of the country’s shrimp production in India. Shrimp farming had started to expand in Kandeleru creek area since 1987-88. Availability of vast tracts of saline lands coupled with abundant quantity of wild seeds and strong export demand for shrimp were initially responsible for attracting the entrepreneurs towards shrimp farming. As a consequent hundreds of hectares of lands were brought under this venture. But the expansion was not smooth which left natural resources around the creek depleted and caused environmental degradation of creek water quality. The sector is facing regular disease problem since 1994. A considerable management and planning is needed for further development (expansion and/or intensiÀcation) of this venture. Area under cultureThe state occupies Àrst rank in the country in coastal aquaculture. About 1.50 lakh hectares of potential brackish water area is available in the state for development of coastal aquaculture. By 1995, about 78,700 ha area was developed into ponds for shrimp culture. Due to outbreak of white spot syndrome causing virus in the year 1994 and resultant repeated crop losses during the last 16 years, much of the developed area has fallen fallow and only about 18000 ha area is now under active shrimp culture. The state contribution is about Rs. 3000 crores by way of marine product exports, which is nearly 40 per cent of these exports from India.RegularizationAs per the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005, enacted by Government of India, it is mandatory for all coastal aquaculture farms (i.e. both new and existing shrimp farms) located within area of 2 km from the High Tide Line (HTL) of the seas, rivers, creeks and back waters has to be registered with Coastal Aquaculture Authority established under the Act. As per the section 14 of the Act, if any person carries on shrimp farming without registering Livelihood Status of Fishers in India196with Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA), he/she shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend upto three years or Àne which may extend upto one lakh rupees, or with both. The provisions of Act have come into effect wef. 16-12-2005.The Export Inspections Council of India, GOI, New Delhi under section 17 of the Export (Quality, Control and Inspection) Act 1963 (22 of 1963) has issued the notiÀcation dated 28-10-2009 to the effect that “the packages of fresh, processed, frozen or chilled and packed aquaculture Àsh and Àshery products bear the registration number allotted by coastal Aquaculture Authority of India/ designated authorities to the farmers from which the aquaculture products are procured.” The implication of the above notiÀcation is that no exporters can purchase the shrimp from unregistered farm.Aqua Labs5 aqua labs are working at Kakinada, Kaikaluru, Bhimavaram, Nellore and Visakhapatnam for disease diagnosis of Àsh/shrimp and testing water samples etc.Area of study and sampling frameKrishna district, Andhra Pradesh (Fig 7.1) was identiÀed as the sample district and a random sample of 100 farmers was drawn in Challapalli and Nagayalankamandals to examine the trends in literacy, income and health of the shrimp farmers.Fig 7.1:Map of Krishna district, Andhra PradeshBrackish Water Aquaculture197A. General Particulars (i) Age composition of shrimp farmers:In Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, the majority (65 per cent) of the shrimp farmers belonged to the middle age group of 36-55 years. This indicated a healthy trend since farmers of this group are receptive, healthy and industrious. This augurs well for the shrimp farming in Krishna district. Only 17 per cent of the shrimp farmers were in old age group.51 per cent of the respondents in Krishna district were males and 49 per cent were females.(ii) Family size of shrimp farmersIn Krishna district, the average size of the shrimp farmer family was 4.78. There were 30 families that had an average size of 2-4 members, 37 families with an average size of 5-6 members and 21 families that had a size of 7-10 members.Given the size of the families and the age groups in which the members fell, the families of the shrimp farmers in Krishna district were in the ideal age group and family composition that could derive optimum development out of shrimp farming in Krishna district.(iii) Age compositionIn Krishna district, a total of 215 males and 206 females were in the sampled families of the 100 shrimp farmers. There were 65 boys and 61 girls who were less than 15 years of age. B. Literacy Status L/LWHUDF\SURÀOHIn Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, among the 421 family members of the 100 sampled shrimp farmers, 192 members (45 per cent) were illiterate. 62 (15 per cent), 137 (33 per cent) and 30 members (7 per cent) were educated upto primary, secondary and collegiate levels respectively.Table 7.4: Age composition of the respondent households (Number)District Adult (> 15 years) Children < 15 years) TotalMale Female Male Female Male FemaleKrishna 150 145 65 61 215 (51.07) 206 (48.93)(ii) Continuing educationNo dropouts were recorded among the literate family members of the shrimp farmers in Krishna district. This may be taken as an indication that shrimp farming activity is able to generate levels of income that enables the farmer to educate his family members well.Livelihood Status of Fishers in India198(iii) Access to educational institutionsVijayawada is one of the main education centers in Andhra Pradesh. NTR University of Health Sciences is located in Vijayawada. Krishna University is located in Machilipatnam. International Institute of Information Technology is present in Nuzvid. South Indian branch of school of architecture and planning is present in Vijayawada.It boasts headquarters of numerous residential colleges and schools like Sri Chaitanya, Nalanda, Gowtham, Sri Krishnaveni, and American Medical Education for USMLE coaching which are amongst the biggest/largest of the Corporate Educational Institutes in India. District has numerous engineering colleges including Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College, Gudlavalleru Engineering College, KLCE. Gudlavalleru Polytechnic College, Mary Stella college, Sidhartha Degree College are few of the many famous arts and science colleges in the district.Machilipatnam, the district headquarters of Krishna, is an educational center, offering all the academic courses except Medicine. It has public (state-run) and private-run schools. The local Hindu college and allied institutions offer KG to PG level of education. There are several Telugu language and English language schools. Daita Madhusudhana Sastry, the former secretary and correspondent of the Hindu college and allied institutions was instrumental in the establishment and expansion of most of the educational institutions in Machilipatnam. Table 7.6 gives the approximate distance of the primary and high schools and colleges from the mandals that were covered under the study in Krishna district.Table 7.5: Education of respondent households - Continuing and Dropout (Number)District Education status KrishnaContinuing Primary Secondary Collegiate229(100.00) 62(27.07)137(59.83)30(21.90)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total (Secondary =High School+ Secondary + Vocational)Collegiate = Collegiate+ ProfessionalTable 7.6 : Access to Education (km)District Education status Krishna Continuing Primary Secondary Collegiate10 20 12 15Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total (Secondary =High School+ Secondary + Vocational)Collegiate = Collegiate+ ProfessionalC. Health profileAccording to Àeld data collected, it appears that with the eradication of small pox from India, the vaccination for small pox has been discontinued (Table 7.7). The others vaccinations include BCG, MMR, Oral polio vaccines are being given to all the children of the shrimp farmers sampled in Krishna district.Brackish Water Aquaculture199Table 7.7: Vaccination regime of infants / children (less than 15 years)*Incidence of discontinuation (IOD) in per cent.Average age of administration and incidence of discontinuation (percentage)DistrictsSmall Pox BCG MMR Polio Others*Age (Weeks) IOD*Age (Weeks) IODAge (Weeks) IODAge (Weeks) IODAge (Weeks) IODKrishna Nil Nil 6 Nil 9-12 Nil 6 Nil 9-12 50The direct positive co-relationship between education and health consciousness can be seen in Krishna district. No case of discontinuance of the vaccination regime was recorded among the sampled farmers.(i) Birth weight of infants:The average birth weight of infants born to shrimp farmers was 2.75 kg in Krishna district. It was 2.50 kg for male infants and 3.0 kg for female infants. The weights compared favourably with the average weight of infants for age weight relationships according to Indian Medical Association estimates. (ii) Mortality of mother/infantDetails regarding infant and or mother mortality during birth were not available from the shrimp farmers of Krishna district(iii) Annual occurrence of diseases among shrimp farmersShrimp farming has often been alleged to cause skin rashes and even reproductive disorders. But contrary to what has often been reported in popular press during the late nineties, there was no signiÀcant incidence of skin or reproductive disorders among shrimp farmers in Krishna district. The frequency of occurrence is insigniÀcant even for normal aliments such as fevers and stomach disorders (Table 7.8). It is signiÀcant to note that there are no reports of any serious ailments among shrimp farmers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.Table 7.8: Incidence of diseases among Adult (Male and Female) - Annual frequencySl. No. Diseases Krishna DistrictM FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 0.45 (45) 0.43 (43)2. Body Aches 0.5 (50) 0.49 (49)3. Diarrhoea 0.07 (7) 0.02 (2)4. Gastro enteric disease 0.41 (41) 0.35 (35)5. Skin disorder 0.05 (5) 0.03 (3)6. Reproductive disorder Nil NilLivelihood Status of Fishers in India200(iv) Disease occurrence among farmers in shrimp farming (Previous history)On a recall basis skin diseases were not recorded among women members of shrimp farmers families in Challapalli and Nagayalan kamandals, Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh while only 7 per cent of the male members including children reported any occurrence of skin aliments. The males include boys too. None of the female members of the shrimp farmers’ households reported any reproductive disorders even on a 10 year recall basis in the same district among shrimp farmers.Table 7.9: Incidence of diseases among - Adult (Male and Female) Previous occurrenceSl. No. Diseases Krishna DistrictM FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 6.91 7.162. Body Aches 7.41 7.53. Diarrhoea 8.08 8.254. Gastroenteric disease 8.16 8.255. Skin disorder 7.33 Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil(* others include Thyroid, Sinus)Special Ailments7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil(v) Disease occurrence among children of shrimp farmers (Previous history)Standard birth weights, good diet and normal education have contributed to practical absence of diseases including serious ailments among the children of shrimp farmers in Challapalli and Nagayalankamandals, Krishna district.On a recall basis practically no minor diseases were recorded among children of shrimp farmers’ families in Challapalli and Nagayalan kamandals, Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh even on a 10 year recall basis.Brackish Water Aquaculture201Access to Health care (km)The sampled mandals of Challapalli and Nagayalankamandals, Krishna district were reasonably close to PHC at Machiliptnam (within 3-6 km), however Vijayawada is having comparatively less access to hospital facilities since it is located 50 km apart. Good health care facilities were available to shrimp farmers of Krishna district.(vii) Problems in health managementFor eliciting responses to problems to health management, among shrimp farmer respondents of Krishna district, an opinion scale of 1 to 5 was offered with 1 indicating total agreement with the statement of reason and 5 in total disagreement. Since good hospitals were accessible to the community at Vijayawada and the local PHC’s were being reasonably well manned, most of the responses were towards total disagreement of the possible reasons (Table 7.10). Scale: 1-5 with 1 indicating total agreement and 5 indicating total disagreementNumber of respondents who had opined on the sameTable 7.10: Problems in health managementSl. No. Reasons Score1. DifÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance 52. Non availability of specialist and para medicines in health centers 53. Poor infrastructure (of PHC) 44. Lack of adequate effective medicines 45. Problems on Cleanliness/ Sanitation 46. Drinking water problem 47. Work related stress 58. Others 5D. Income profileL,QFRPHSURÀOHThe weekly income of respondents from various economic activities are given in Table 7.11. Incomes were derived from various enterprises like Àshery, agriculture, manual labour and other businesses. The weekly average income for Krishna district amounted to Rs. 2019/- per adult.Table 7. 11. Income proÀle of the respondents (Weekly Rs.)Sl. No. Enterprise Income in Rs.1. Fishery 1153.842. Labour 384.603. Agriculture 384.604. Business 480.7605. Any others -6. Total 2019.23Livelihood Status of Fishers in India202LL,QYROYHPHQWRI VKULPSIDUPHUVLQQRQÀVKHULHVDFWLYLWLHVKrishna district is the heartland of shrimp farming in the country (Table 7.12). Of the 295 adults in 100 shrimp farmer families surveyed, only 62 adults were engaged in activities other than shrimp aquaculture, ie. Only 21 per cent of the total adults in shrimp farming households sampled engaged in other economic activities. This may practically be discounted in full since these activities are seasonal such as working as labour in agriculture during off season time of shrimp farming. (iv) Savings in shrimp farming householdsCoastal areas of Andhra Pradesh is one of the richest regions of agricultural India. In tune with the ground truth of the region and the district the data on savings seem to reÁect the factual position. Of the 100 farmers sampled in Krishna district 30 per cent did not have any savings 30 per cent had some savings of less than Rs.50,000 20 per cent had savings between Rs. 50,000 and 1,00,000 and 10 per cent had savings more than Rs. 1,00,000/-. Moreover no indebtedness was recorded among sampled shrimp farmers in Krishna districtTable 7.12: Respondents involvement in Non-Àsheries activitiesSl.No: Non Fishing activities Involvement (frequency)1. Labour 302. Agriculture 183. Business 054. Any others 095. Total 62 (21)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.13: Pattern of expenditure of the Àshers family (Weekly Rs.)Sl.No. Items Expenditure (in Rs.)1. Food 3,0002. Clothing 5,0003. Fuel 1,0004. Medical 5005. Education 12,0006. Entertainment 5007. Personal 5008. Durables 10009. Total 23,500LLL3DWWHUQRI H[SHQGLWXUHRI ÀVKHUIDPLO\The total weekly expenditure of the 100 shrimp families in Challapalli and Nagayalan kamandals, Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh amounted to Rs. 23,500 ie. Rs. 235/- per shrimp farmer family per week. The weekly expenditure seems to be an understatement. The total income was expended with 0.13 per cent on food 0.22 per cent on clothing 0.04 per cent on fuel 0.02 per cent on medicines 0.53 per cent on education 0.04 per cent on entertainment and personal 0.04 per cent on durables. Brackish Water Aquaculture203(v) Sources of lendingThough no indebtedness was recorded in Krishna district among the sampled shrimp farmers, as far as crop loan was concerned, the primary source of funds was own funds generated within the family and followed by jewel loans. It does appear that institutional Ànance is not yet shrimp farming friendly. The short term loans generated through the institutional sources were also taken for minor repair works and not to support the major activity of Ànancing the crop as such. Therefore the risk in shrimp farming is still high and the absence of insurance to accept the enterprise in full appears to be signiÀcant.Table 7.14.: Lending organizations (Number of respondents who had availed)Sl. No. Sources Percentage of respondents1. Banks 102. Co-operative 103. Private money lenders 104. Friends / Relatives ( and Own) 555. Jewel loans 15(vi) Purpose of availing loansIn Krishna district, the major purpose for which loans were availed was for meeting short term culture related expenses such as bund repair, motor replacement etc. The other items for which funds were borrowed were for house building and for conducting marriages of children.Table 7.15: Purpose of availing loans (Percentage of respondents who had availed)Sl. No. Purpose Percentage of respondents1. Purchase of craft/ gear and other Àshing related equipments 502. House construction / Land purchase 203. Marriage expense 204. Education Nil5. Health and Social Security Nil6. Any others 10(vii) Scope for enhancement of income and employmentMultiple scoring was used for assessment of suggestions for enhancement of income and employment. Suggestions for formalising the acceptance of shrimp farming by institutional Ànancial agencies and for improving rural infrastructure such as roads and communications had 100 per cent response. At the same time marketing and food security through PDS system was not a problem for shrimp farmers of Krishna district essentially because shrimp farming is a high income earning activity and since it has been practised for the last two decades on a commercial scale in Krishna districts and other districts of Andhra Pradesh.Livelihood Status of Fishers in India204II. Brackish water Aquaculture of OdishaSamplings and Data CollectionOdisha state of India is located between the parallels of 17.49N and 22.34N latitudes and meridians of 81.27E and 87.29E longitudes. It is bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the east Madhya Pradesh on the west and Andhra Pradesh on the south. It extends over an area of 155,707 square kms accounting about 4.87 of the total area of India. According to the 1991 census, it has a total population of 31,512,070 (3.73 per cent of the total population of India) out of which about 16,237,000 are male and 15,275,070 are female. It has 482 km stretch of coastal line. The annual per capita Àsh consumption is 8.44 Kg. During 2007-08 the total Àsh production of the state is about 2, 25,102 MT. The marine Àsh production of the state during 2007-08 (up to December, 2007) is about 99553 MT. The state has vast potential for fresh water and brackish water aquaculture. It has fresh water ponds and tanks covering water area of 1,17,913 ha lakes and swamps of 1,80,000 ha, rivers and canals of 1,71,186 ha and reservoirs of 1,97,472 ha. The Àshermen population of the state is about 10.84 lakhs. The economic status of the Àshermen is generally below the poverty line (BPL). About 80 per cent of the state populations are Àsh eaters.The brackish water aquaculture in Odisha is a popular enterprise in the coastal Odisha predominantly in Puri district. Therefore, the data collection on the brackish water aquaculture was concentrated in the Puri district. A total of 59 samples were collected in Odisha. The details of the sampling are presented below.Table 7.16: Suggestions for enhancing the income and employmentgeneration by Àshermen (percentage response)Sl. No. Suggestions Percentage of respondents1. Arranging the institutional Ànancial support like micro credit for Àsheries, SHG, etc 1002. Regulation of Àsh marketing through institutional interventions Nil3. Vocational training for Àsherwomen to undertake house hold in-come activities during dry/ off season Nil4. Regulation of PDS and supply of the basic food items and fuel(like kerosene ,LPG,etc) by the Govt. agencies Nil5. Provisional of rural infrastructure for general societal / human development 100Brackish Water Aquaculture205Samplings and data collectionThe results and discussions are presented under the following heads A. General particulars B. Literacy statusC. Health statusD. Income statusA. General particularsThe general particulars of respondent’s households included age, family size, family composition etc. (i) Age distribution The age distribution of respondent households is given in Table 7.17. The brackish water aquaculture sector in the state of Odisha exists mostly in the district of Puri in coastal Odisha. A total of 104 households were surveyed and it was found that majority (about 60 per cent) were in the middle age group of 36 to 55 years and rest of them were mostly at the higher ages i.e. 30.8 per cent above 56 years. The young age group people with less than 35 years were very less constituting 8.7 per cent only. Table 7.17 : Age wise details of sample respondent (Years) Age wise distribution<35 36-55 >56 TotalFrequency 9 63 32 104Percentage (8.7) (60.6) (30.8) (100.0)(ii) Male female ratioThe male female ratio was found to be highly skewed in case of the brackish water aquaculturist of Odisha. There were 294 male against 215 females among the 104 households. This is also indicative of the low level of social status of the women folk and difference in the distribution of the facilities between women and men.Table 7.18 : Household particulars of the sample respondents-male and female)District Number of household Male Female TotalPuri 104 294(57.8)215(42.2)509(100)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalLivelihood Status of Fishers in India206(iii) Family size The family size is an important indicator of family welfare. The average size of the family of the brackish water aquaculturist of Odisha were found to be 5.0. About half of them within the size group of 5-6, 40 per cent were within the size group of 2-4 and 10 per cent were in the category of 7-10.(iv) Age compositionThe age composition of the respondents’ households of the Àshers involved in the brackish water Aquaculture of the Odisha shown similar trend comparable to other sector. There was a wide gap between the male and female at 1.4:1 ratio among the adult and 1.24:1 among the children. The adult children ratio was 2.43:1. The skewed male female ratio is a cause of concern for the community.Table 7.19: Family size of the respondent households (Number)2-4 5-6 7-10 Total AverageNumber 41 52 11 104 5.0Percentage 39.4 50.0 10.6 100.0Table 7.20: Age composition of the respondent households (Number)Adult (>15 yr) Children (<15 yr) TotalMale Female Male Female Male FemaleNumber 226 161 66 53 292 214Percentage 77.40 75.23 22.60 24.77 100.00 100.00Table 7.21: Literacy ProÀle of the respondent families (Number)Total Illiterates Literate Primary Secondary College Profes-sionalVoca-tionalNumber 502 79 423 187 188 44 3 1Percentage 100.0 15.7 84.3 44.2 44.4 10.4 0.7 0.2B. Literacy status The literacy status of the respondent households was analyzed through the literacy level, educational status - continuing and dropouts and access to educational facilities. The illiterate indicates Àsher folk without any formal education and doesn’t even possess functional literacy.(i) Literacy statusThe literacy status includes the level of education as indicated by primary, secondary and collegiate level. The primary level indicated schooling till fourth grade, secondary level Brackish Water Aquaculture207indicated by high school. The collegiate level of education was denoted by collegiate and professional education. The vocational education involved any formal education in vocational schools or college. The Àsh farmers of the brackish water aquaculture of Odisha were shown relatively better level of education compared to others as only 15.7 per cent of the populace were illiterates. Among the literates about 44 per cent were in primary and the same were in the secondary level. The college level of education was prevalent among 10.4 per cent of the people. Only few members (four) attained professional/vocational qualiÀcation among the respondents’ families.(ii) Educational statusThe educational status needs to be studied along with the dropout rates as the drop outs were the voluntary or involuntary discontinuation of the education. The drops outs are also the indicators of the termination of the education. Among the brakishwater aquaculturist the dropout rates were as high with 77.0 which was as high as 86.7 per cent in Puri district. The dropouts indicate that most of the students discontinue their education mostly at secondary and primary level. The level of dropouts at secondary level is 42.3 per cent where as at the primary level is 30.9 per cent and rest 26.8 per cent are at the college level. In Puri more dropouts were reported at college level.The percentages of dropouts among the members of the households involved in the brackish water aquaculture were in Puri as high as 78.7 per cent. Among them the percentage Farmers involved in brakish water aquacultureLivelihood Status of Fishers in India208drop outs in the primary, secondary and collegiate level were 27.6 per cent, 52.6 per cent and 19.8 per cent, respectively. About half the dropouts at the level of secondary schools.(iii) Access to educational institutionsAccess to education is an important yardstick to measure the socio-economic well being of a society. The proximity of the educational institutions like primary school, high school, college and professional college provides a major impetus when it comes to continuing education. The higher distance to the educational institutes reduces the access to it and there is a greater chance of drop outs when the schools or colleges were distantly located. The analysis was presented to evaluate the physical access to education. The Àsh farmers of the brackish water aquaculture located in the Puri district were studied for their physical access to the educational institutions. The average distance to the primary and secondary school were 0.5 and 1.3 kilometers indicated their accessibility. It is also interesting to note that the colleges were also located nearby with an average of 2.5 kilometers. But, the professional colleges were located at a distance of 24.3 kilometers which can be considered as far way in term of the physical access to such institutions.C. Health profileThe health status of the respondent households was studied based on the parameters like administration of vaccines, incidence of discontinuation, birth weight of infants, incidence of maternal and child mortality at the time of birth, incidence of common diseases and special ailments among adults and children. Disease management aspects like access to health care, problems in health management and suggestions to improve the health care facilities are also dealt in this session. (i) Vaccination regime and incidence of diseaseThe average age of administration of vaccination and incidence of discontinuation among infants/children among sample population is studied. The vaccination for Pox, BCG, MMR and Polio were regularly taken by all the families covered under the study. The average age at which the vaccination for pox was given to the child worked out at one year, and for polio it goes upto Àve years in tune with the practice prevalent and recommendation made by the local hospital and paramedics.Table 7.22: Dropouts at different level of educationPrimary Secondary Collegiate Total drop out Total literateNumber 92 175 66 333 423Percentage 27.6 52.6 19.8 100.0 78.7* incidence of discontinuation in per centTable 7.23 :Vaccination regime of infants / children (less than 15 years) -Average age of administration and incidence of discontinuationPOX BCG MMR PolioAge IOD* Age IOD Age IOD Age IOD1 6.4 1 6.4 1 11.1 Upto 5 years 0.0Brackish Water Aquaculture209The percentage of the household having children received vaccination was studied to assess the spread of the vaccination regimes to the target households. The primary reasons of discontinuation were found to be lack of knowledge and awareness about the programme.(ii) Birth weight of infantsBirth weights are considered as an important indicator of the health status of the mother and the families. The birth weight in comparison to the state or national average can be an important indicator to access the maternal health status. The birth weights for the male and female in Puri were 2.1 and 2.3 kg, respectively. (iii) Incidence of mortality among mother/ child during birthMaternal and child mortality at the time of birth and infant mortality had been pressing concerns over the past. The maternal mortality is an extreme case of the failure of the socio-environmental system to protect the mothers. The incidence of mortality was therefore is an indicator of the health status of the mother and family. Few cases of maternal and child mortality was reported across the sample households in Puri, which include ten cases of child mortality and two incidents of maternal mortality.(iv) Incidence of diseases among adults The incidence, frequency, and previous occurrence of diseases among the adult family members of the respondents across the four coastal districts are discussed in the Table 7.24. Major diseases found among the respondents were categorized under two groups, viz common diseases and special ailments. Fever/Áu, body ache, diarrhoea, gastro enteric disease, skin disorder, reproductive disorders are included in common diseases. Special ailments include diseases like cardiac failure, tuberculosis, anaemia, diabetics, blood pressure, AIDS and others. The predominant ailments reported among the Àsh farmers of brackish water aquaculture were fever, body ache and gastro enteric diseases as a community both in males as well as females. But in all of these cases, the numbers of persons reported as well as frequency of Table 7.24: Incidence of diseases among Adult (Male and Female) - Annual frequencySl.NoIncidence of diseases- Annual frequencyMale FemaleCommon disease Frequency Average Frequency Average 1. Fever 103 1.7 96 1.72. Body ache 32 2.4 13 1.93. Diarrhoea 4 2.3 2 1.54. Gastroenteric 36 2.0 25 1.85. Skin disorder 16 1.6 6 1.86. Reproductive disorder 2 1.0 0 0.0Special ailments7. TB 2 1.0 0 0.08. Cardiac failure 18 1.1 4 1.09 Anaemia 12 1.4 6 1.0Others 14 1.6 14 2.1Livelihood Status of Fishers in India210occurrence were higher in males compared to females. The special ailments were not very predominant in the community.(v) Incidence of diseases among adult (male and female) previous occurrenceThe previous table explained about the reported numbers in each ailments as well as the annual frequency. The common diseases of fever and body ache occurred 3 to 4 months back while for the diarrhoea and skin disorder it was 5-6 months.Table 7.25: Incidence of diseases among - Adult Previous occurrence (No: of months)Incidence of diseases- Annual frequencyMale FemaleCommon disease Frequency Average Frequency Average Fever 103 3.2 96 4.1Body ache 33 2.4 12 2.5Diarrhoea 4 3.0 2 5.0Gastroenteric 36 3.2 25 3.6Skin disorder 16 3.2 6 5.0Reproductive disorder 2 6.0 0 0.0Special ailmentsTB 2 10.5 0 0.0Cardiac failure 18 6.0 4 5.5Anaemia 12 4.4 6 4.8Others 14 4.4 14 4.2Table 7.26: Incidence of diseases among Children (Male and Female) - Annual frequency Incidence of diseases- Annual frequencyMale FemaleCommon disease Frequency Average Frequency Average Fever 26 2.3 23 2.3Body ache 1 3.0 3 1.0(vi) Incidence of diseases among children The health status of the children were also studied to make a comparison with adults in terms of both common as well as specialized diseases. The common diseases were mostly fever, body ache, diarrhoea, gastro enteric, skin and reproductive disorder etc. Whereas the specialized diseases were TB, cardiac failure, anaemia and other diseases. Frequencies of diseases in a year across male as well as female child were studied. Across the children in the households of brackish water aquaculturist the predominant disease reported was fever. The occurrence was high in terms of both frequency and number among males and female.Brackish Water Aquaculture211(vii) Incidence of diseases among children (male and female) previous occurrenceThe details of previous occurrence of diseases among children in terms of number of month is furnished in table 7.27. As discussed in the previous section, the reported cases of fever and diarrhoea were occurred 2 to 3 months back. Fever was reported 3 to 4 month back among females of respondent households.Diarrhoea 2 2.5 0 0.0Gastroenteric 0 0.0 0 0.0Skin disorder 3 1.3 0 0.0Reproductive disorder 0 0.0 0 0.0Special ailmentsTB 0 0.0 0 0.0Cardiac failure 0 0.0 0 0.0Anaemia 0 0.0 0 0.0Others 1 1.0 0 0.0Table 7.37: Incidence of diseases among Children - Previous occurrence (No: of months)Incidence of diseases- Annual frequencyMale FemaleCommon disease Frequency Average Frequency Average Fever 26 2.8 23 3.7Body ache 1 2.0 3 4.0Diarrhoea 2 2.5 0 0.0Gastroenteric 0 0.0 0 0.0Skin disorder 3 4.7 0 0.0Reproductive disorder 0 0.0 0 0.0Special ailments 0 0.0 0 0.0TB 0 0.0 0 0.0Cardiac failure 0 0.0 0 0.0Anaemia 0 0.0 0 0.0Others 1 2.0 0 0.0(viii) Access to health careThe access to health care is an important indicator of the human development as the accessibility of the health care service determines the state of health of the communities. There are many parameters to measure the access to the health services but among which the physical distance is an important parameter. The physical distance is important as the poor Àshing communities in most cases depend heavily on walk or cycle to have access to health care facilities. Therefore, the distance determines the access to the health care in a greater extent. In the present survey, the physical distance in term of kilo meters to the hospital was studied to assess the state of access of the Àshers’ communities to the health care services. Livelihood Status of Fishers in India212For the Àshers involved in brackish water aquaculture in Puri district the average distance to the hospital was 2.6 kilo meters. (ix) Problems in health managementVarious problems of the health management were investigated in the survey by using open ended questions and each household were asked to identify the most important problem concerned to health management. The table 7.28. depicts the results of the survey. The major problems in health management identiÀed by the respondents include poor sanitation, poor Ànancial conditions, water problems, as well as poor working conditions etc. Interestingly, no household identiÀed the lack of medical facilities as the problems for them.Table 7.28: Problems in health management (Frequency)Sl. No. Problems Frequency1. Water problem 24 (23.1)2. Sanitation 29 (27.9)3. Financial problem 26 (25.0)4. Poor working condition 25 (24.0)5. Lack of medical facilities 0 (0.0)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalFigures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.29: Suggestions to improve health care facilities (Frequency)Sl. No Suggestions Frequency1. Sanitation facilities by govt. 10(9.6)2. Free medicine by govt. 52(50.0)3. Water facilities by govt. 10(9.6)4. Appointment of knowledgeable staff 31(29.8)5. Appointment of doctors in hospital 1(1.0)(x) Suggestions to improve health careSimilar to the survey on the problems, the suggestion to improve the health status was assessed using similar methodology. The Àsh farmers working in the brackish water aquaculture of Odisha considered availability of free medicines, appointment of knowledgeable staff and provision of water and sanitation facilities as important solution to the problems. .Brackish Water Aquaculture213D. Income profileThe income proÀling of the respondent households are analyzed using income patterns, respondents involvement in non Àsheries activities and expenditure pattern. In addition the indebtedness and savings were analyzed using details on savings, indebtedness, sources of lending organization, purpose of availing loan and suggestions for enhancing the income and employment generation(i) Income patternWeekly income of the Àsh farmers engaged in the freshwater aquaculture was assessed using the survey questionnaires. The average income of the people involved in the brackish water aquaculture was reported to be at Rs. 742 per household per week. The aquaculture constitutes about 78.4 per cent of the income followed by agriculture (14.2 per cent). The other incomes like labour, business are of minor importance for the people involved in the brackish water aquaculture.LL,QYROYHPHQWLQQRQÀVKHULHVDFWLYLWLHVThe Involvement of respondent’ households in non Àsheries activities are illustrated in Table 7.34. The level of the involvement in other employment sector than Àsheries activities was indicative of the livelihood diversity. It is generally understood that the diversiÀed portfolio of the income is a sign of livelihood security as it reduces the seasonality and increases the adaptability to the risk and uncertainty in the livelihoods. About 31.7 per cent of the households were depending on agriculture activities as an alternative source if income.Table 7.30: Income proÀle of the respondents (Weekly Rs.)Fisheries Labour Agriculture Business TotalRupees 581.7 38.5 105.8 22.1 742.3Percentage 78.4 5.2 14.2 3.0 100.0Table 7.31: Respondents involvement in Non-Àsheries activitiesLabour Agriculture Business TotalFrequency 15 33 5 104Percentage 14.4 31.7 4.8 100.0(iii) Expenditure patternsThe expenditure is considered to be the most important indicators of the income and poverty as the income data alone are often unreliable. The expenditure pattern not only shows the net expenditure but also the qualitative information of the expenditure across various heads. The important expenditure heads of a family including food, clothing, fuel, education, medical expenses, entertainment, durables, personal etc were studied. The Àsh farmers of brackish water aquaculture were spending about 60.0 per cent for food followed by personal (9.2 per cent) medical (6.9 per cent) and clothing’s (6.4 per cent) together constitute about 82. 3 per cent. The personal expenses were primarily for the consumption of liquors, tobacco and other intoxicants.Livelihood Status of Fishers in India214Table 7.32: Pattern of expenditure of the Àsher families (Weekly Rs.)Food Clothing Fuel Medical Education Entertain-ment Personal Durable TotalRupees 383.5 40.9 22.7 44.3 34.7 37.6 58.6 17.1 639.3percentage 60.0 6.4 3.5 6.9 5.4 5.9 9.2 2.7 100.0Table 7.33 : Loan details of respondent households<1000 1000-10000 10000-50000 50000-100000 >100000 TotalFrequency 28 28 30 3 1 90Percentage 31.1 31.1 33.3 3.3 1.1 100.0(iv) Indebtedness and SavingsThe indebtedness and loan details are important to understand the level of distress within the household of the Àsh farmers and Àshers involved in the Àsheries and aquaculture. The frequency occurrence of the loans were studied and presented in table 7.33 Most of the brackish water aquaculturists was taken loan. About one third of the Àsh farmers were taken loan of varying amount viz., <1000, 1000-10000, 10000-50000. Only a few were taken higher amount of loan (>50000).Table 7.34:Sources of lending (Number of respondents who had availed)Bank Private moneylenders FriendsSelf Help GroupCooperative societyCooperative bankFrequency 27 3 3 3 17 9Percentage 43.5 4.8 4.8 4.8 27.4 14.5The number of person having loan is an indicator of the Ànancial independence of the community as higher percentage of the loan would be indicating the loan dependency. Similarly, the actual amount of the loan per household was indicative of the community dependence. The loan amount was indicative of the actual level of dependence to the credit. The loan per loaning household shows the individual household dependence where as the per household indicates the community Ànancial health. Among the brackish water aquaculturists of Odisha, most of them (86.5 per cent) were involved in the loan of any amount. The average loan amount was Rs. 4566.7 and per household it was estimated to be Rs. 3951.9. These amounts were used mostly for consumption as well as operational expenses for aquaculture. (v) Source of lendingsThere were many sources of the lending viz., banks, private moneylenders, friends, self-help group, private company, cooperative society and cooperative bank. These sources were diverse with differential institutional arrangement in supply of the credit to the Àshers. The private money lenders and friends were the informal sources where as others were the formal sources in the credit supply. The table 7.34 presents the percentage distribution of the loans across the sources. The Àsh farmers of brackish water aquaculture of Odisha were taken loan primarily from banks, cooperative Society and cooperative bank in the order of importance. Other sources were less important as sources of credit.Brackish Water Aquaculture215(vi) Purpose of loanIn the preceding sections the amount as well as sources of the credits was studied. It was found that the Àsh farmers and Àshers were mostly taken smaller amounts of the credit. The Table 7.35 presents the purpose of the credit across various uses distributed in percentages. The most prioritized purpose of the loan was business, agriculture and construction of houses for the brackish water aquaculturists of Odisha.III. Brackish water aquaculture - Kerala Brackish water aquaculture contributes signiÀcantly to the Indian sea food export, mainly through production of shrimp and scampi. Among the coastal districts in Kerala, four districts namely Alapuzha, Ernakulam, Thrissur and Kollam are contributing signiÀcantly to the brackish water aquaculture production from the state and are selected for the study. The assessment of literacy, health and income status of the Àsh farmers in these four districts are presented below:-Table 7.35: Purpose of availing loans (Number of respondents who had availed)Sl.No. Purpose Frequency1. Construction of house 8 (13.8)2. Agriculture 15 (25.9)3. Digging and repair of pond 0 (0.00)4. Health management 2 (3.4)5. Fishing equipment 0 (0.00)6. Business 34 (57.9)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total(vii) Suggestions to improve indebtednessThe survey sought open ended suggestions from the respondent about the options to reduce the loan burden. The suggestions are presented in Table 7.36 as percentage response to the various options. The government support, freeing of interest were the two major suggestion followed by the loan weaver as options to reduce the loan burden of brackish water aquaculturists.Table 7.36: Suggestions to reduce the loan burdens of Àsh farmers.Sl.No. Purpose Frequency1. Loan weaver 11 (18.6)2. Interest free loan 19 (32.2)3. Provide government loan 2 (3.2)4. More loan by bank 1 (1.7)5. Government support 26 (44.1)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalLivelihood Status of Fishers in India216A. General particulars(i) AgeThe analysis of the age group of the respondents indicated that the maximum proportions of them are in the age group of 36-55 years (58per cent of the total) (Table 7.37). Among the four districts also, the highest share of respondents fall under the age group of 36-55 years (48 per cent in Alapuzha, 35.82per cent in Ernakulam, 55per cent in Kollam and 65per cent in Thrissur). This indicated that the potential (or receptive or experienced) age group range of 36-55 years dominates the age group composition, which can be considered ideal for introducing any new concepts in the Àeld.(ii) Family composition In the sample households, are of 433 members, 227 were male (52.42per cent), and 206 (47.57per cent) – Table 7.38.Except in Thrissur, the populations of male members were higher than that of female members in the other three districts. In Thrissur district, the number of female in the respondents’ household shared 52.94 per cent of the total number of respondents against the share of 47.05per cent of male respondents. Table 7.37: Age wise details of the sample respondents (Years)Sl. No Districts <35 36-55 >56 Total1. Alappuzha 8 (32.00) 12 (48.00) 5 (20.00) 25 (100.00)2. Ernakulam 2 (5.71) 22 (35.82) 11 (31.42) 35 (100.00)3. Kollam 2 (10.00) 11 (55.00) 7 (35.00) 20 (100.00)4. Thrissur 1 (5.00) 13 (65.00) 6 (30.00) 20 (100.00)5. Total 13 (13.00) 58 (58.00) 29 (29.00) 100 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.38: Household particulars of the sample respondents –male and female (Number)Sl.No. Districts Households Male Female Total1. Alappuzha 25 59 (56.19) 46 (43.80) 105 (100.00)2. Ernakulam 35 80 (51.61) 75 (48.38) 155 (100.00)3. Kollam 20 48 (54.54) 40 (45.45) 88 (100.00)4. Thrissur 20 40 (47.05) 45 (52.94) 85 (100.00)5. Total 100 227 (52.42) 206 (47.57) 433 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total(iii) Family sizeThe average family size of the respondents’ household is 4.33, marginally lower than the national Àshers’ households family size of 4.5 (CMFRI, 2006) (Table 7.39). This indicated the comparatively successful implementation of the small family norms of the state government. Kerala model of population is widely recognized by the other States.Brackish Water Aquaculture217The maximum proportion of the households is under the family size group of 2-4 (66per cent). In all the four districts, the proportion of households under this family size group is the highest. Only 27per cent of the respondents had a bigger family size group of 5-6. This can be due to the fact that, presently most of the size families are under nuclear family type and very little proportion lives as joint family.Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.39: Family size of the respondent households (Number)Sl No. DistrictsFamily Size Total Average1 2-4 5-6 7-10 >101. Alappuzha - 17 (68.00) 8 (32.00) - - 25 (100.00) 4.202. Ernakulam - 21 (60.00) 12 (34.28) 1 (2.85) 1 (2.85) 35 (100.00) 4.423. Kollam 1 (5.00) 13 (65.00) 2 (10.00) 4 (20.00) - 20 (100.00) 4.404. Thrissur - 15 (75.00) 5 (25.00) - - 20 (100.00) 4.255. Total 1 (10.00) 66 (66.00) 27 (27.00) 5 (5.00) 1 (1.00) 100 (100.00) 4.33(iv) Age compositionThe analysis of the age composition of the respondent households indicated that, in adult group (more than 15 years) male members were marginally higher than the female members both in relative terms and in terms of percentage composition, while it was reverse in case of children (Table 7.40).Table 7.40: Age composition of the respondent households (Number)Sl No. DistrictsAdult (> 15 years) Children < 15 years) TotalMale Female Male Female Male Female1. Alappuzha 47(79.66)37 (80.43)12 (20.33)9 (19.56)59 (100.00)46 (100.00)2. Ernakulam 71 (88.75)63 (84.00)9 (11.25)12 (16.00)80 (100.00)75 (100.00)3. Kollam 43 (89.58)35 (87.50)5 (10.41)5 (12.50)48 (100.00)40 (100.00)4. Thrissur 35 (87.50)41 (91.11)5 (12.50)4 (8.88)40 (100.00)45 (100.00)5. Total 196 (86.34)176 (85.43)31 (13.65)30 (14.56)227 (100.00)206 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalAdult- children Ratio:-Alappuzha - Adult - 84 (80per cent), Children - 21 (20per cent)Ernakulam - Adult - 134 (86.45per cent), Children - 21 (13.54per cent)Kollam - Adult - 78 (88.63per cent), Children - 10 (11.36per cent)Thrissur - Adult - 76 (89.41per cent), Children - 9 (10.58per cent)B. Educational StatusL/LWHUDF\SURÀOHKerala is the state with highest literacy rate. Literacy is an important indicator of an individual’s development. The overall literacy rate was 95.15 per cent which is higher than the Livelihood Status of Fishers in India218literacy level of the state (2001 census). The high rate of literacy is being due to the effective implementation of the education development programmes in the state. (Table 7.41). Among the literates, the maximum proportion of family members, 75.24 per cent was educated up to secondary level, followed by primary level (12.69 per cent) and collegiate level (12.13 per cent).Table 7.41. : Literacy proÀle of the respondent families (Number)Sl. No. Districts Total Illiterate LiteratePrimaryLevelSecondaryLevelCollegiateLevel1. Alappuzha 105 1 103 5 (4.85) 85 (82.52) 13 (12.62)2. Ernakulam 155 5 146 21 (14.38) 108 (73.97) 17 (11.64)3. Kollam 88 1 83 15 (18.07) 57 (68.67) 11 (13.25)4. Thrissur 85 5 80 11 (13.75) 60 (75.00) 9 (11.25)5. Total 433 12 412 52 (12.69) 310 (75.24) 50 (12.13)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total literate population (Secondary Level =High School+ Secondary + Vocational, Collegiate Level = Collegiate+ Professional)(ii) Educational status Among the family members of the household, 109 members are continuing studies, while 317 members dropped out at different stages (Table 7.42). Out of those who dropped out, 40 (12.61 per cent) dropped out at primary level, 257 (81 per cent), at secondary level and 20 (6.30 per cent), at college level. The high rate of drop outs is a matter of serious concern, which needs proper attention.Table 7.42: Education of respondent households - Continuing and Dropout (Number)Sl.No. Districts Continuing Drop outsPrimary Secondary Collegiate Total1. Alappuzha 30 2 (2.70) 69 (93.24) 3 (4.05) 74 (100.00)2. Ernakulam 32 18 (15.12) 94 (78.99) 7 (5.88) 119 (100.00)3. Kollam 24 10 (16.12) 46 (74.19) 6 (9.67) 62 (100.00)4. Thrissur 23 10 (16.12) 48 (77.41) 4 (6.45) 62 (100.00)5. Total 109 40 (12.61) 257 (81.00) 20 (6.30) 317 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total(iii) Access to educationThe access to education was measured or evaluated by calculating the distance of the educational institutions from the respondents house (Table 7.43). It is seen from the table that a member should travel an average distance of 1.16 km to get primary education about 2.78 km to get high school education 12.58 km for college education and 11.86 km for professional college studies. The analysis indicated that,. Alappuzha district is comparatively better placed than the other three districts in providing educational facilities to the Àshers’ household.Brackish Water Aquaculture219&+HDOWKSURÀOHThe vaccination regime indicated that the children in all the sample districts have been administered the vaccines at the prescribed age limit and the percentage of discontinuance is zero. (Table 7.44) This indicated the effective functioning of public health facilities in the districts.Government of India takes adequate steps to maintain and improve child health. The children of the Àsher’s household were vaccinated as per schedule and there is no rate of discontinuance.Table 7.43: Access to education (km)Sl. No. Districts Primary School High School College Professional College1. Alappuzha 1.06 1.30 5.12 8.162. Ernakulam 1.47 2.28 15.25 12.873. Kollam 1.15 5.10 23.90 16.054. Thrissur 0.97 2.47 6.07 10.375. Average 1.16 2.78 12.58 11.86 (i) Birth weight of the infantsThe average birth weight of the infant was 2.94 kg (Table 7.45). The average birth weight of the male child is (2.95 kg) was marginally higher than the female child (2.93 kg). (Table 7.48) A similar trend was observed in three districts except Kollam where the birth weight of female child (3.16 kg) was higher than that of the male child (2.56 kg). However the average birth weight of the child was 2.94 kg, which was lower than the states/national averageTable 7.45. Birth weight of infants (kg)Sl.No. Districts Weight (kg)Male Female Total1. Alappuzha 3.63 3.33 3.482. Ernakulam 2.83 2.72 2.773. Kollam 2.56 3.16 2.864. Thrissur 2.68 2.53 2.605. Average 2.95 2.93 2.94Table 7.44: Vaccination regime of infants / children (less than 15 years)Average age of administration and incidence of discontinuation (percentage)Normally Polio administration continues till the age of 5 yearsFigures in percentage indicate Incidence of discontinuation (IOD)Sl. No. DistrictsPox BCG MMR PolioAge IOD (per cent) AgeIOD (per cent) AgeIOD (per cent) AgeIOD (per cent)1. Alappuzha 1.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 1.00 0.00 4.50 0.002. Ernakulam 0.80 0.00 0.25 0.00 1.50 0.00 3.28 0.003. Kollam - 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.97 0.00 4.11 0.004. Thrissur - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 5.00 0.005. Average 0.70 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.86 0.00 4.22 0.00Livelihood Status of Fishers in India220(ii) Incidence of mortality among mother/child during birthThere has been no incidence of mortality of mother or child during the birth in the sample households in all the districts except for a case of one death in Ernakulam, which is due to premature delivery (Table 7.46). This can be due to the different health schemes of the state governments and the committed execution of the schemes. The Government of India has launched a new scheme during 2009 called Navajata Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, to reduce the IMR by providing training to health care providers. (The Hindu, 8.11.09, Kochi Edn, AartiDhar, p. 10).(iii) Incidence of disease among adultsFever and Áue has been the common disease that had affected the adult (male and female) Àsher households with an annual frequency of more than one. (Table 7.47).Male members of the family were affected by fever and Áue more times than the female members. Body ache was the next disease that affected the population both male and female. Under the special ailments, cardiac failure was one of the major disease that affected the population with one incident. There is no signiÀcant difference among the four districts in the incidence of special ailments.Table 7.46: Incidence of maternal and child mortalitySl. No: DistrictsNo. of delivery Maternal mortalityChildmortality TotalNumber Reason Number Reason1. Alappuzha - Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil2. Ernakulam 5 Nil Nil 1 Premature delivery 13. Kollam 2 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil4. Thrissur - Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil5. Total 7 Nil Nil 1 Nil 1Table 7.47: Incidence of diseases among Adult (Male and Female) - Annual frequencySl. No: DiseasesDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur TotalM F M F M F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 3.48(25)2.12(25)2.53(13)1.33 (9)3.10 (10)3.61 (13)1.66 (18)1.35 (14)2.69 (66)2.10 (61)2. Body Aches 1.86(23)1.78(23)2.60(5)1.20(5)Nil 9.00(2)1.20(10)1.00(9)1.41(38)3.24(39)3. Diarrhoea 1.00(2)1.00(2)1.33(3)Nil Nil Nil 1.00(2)1.00(4)0.83(7)0.50(9)4. Gastroenteric disease2.04(23)1.47(23)1.00(1)Nil Nil Nil 1.00(2)Nil 1.01(26)0.36(23)5. Skin disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilBrackish Water Aquaculture221(iv) Incidence of disease among adult male and female previous occurrenceAmong the common diseases the previous occurrence was high in case of fever and Áue which had occurred 1.85 and 1.58 months earlier. (Table 7.48). In case of males body pain had a previous occurrence of 1.79 months and the female got body pain more frequently than males at 0.99 months. Diarrhoea is the most frequently affected disease which has recurred in a period of 1.06 months among male and 0.56 months among female respondents. Among the four districts, the Àshers of Ernakulam and Thrissur were more frequently affected by the common ailments than Àshers of the other two districtsIn case of special ailments, cardiac failure was the important disease that had recurred within a period of 3.75 months. The Àshers of Alapuzha and Thrissur had the recurrence of cardiac failure.6. Reproductive disorderNil Nil Nil 1.00(1)4.00(3)6.50(2)Nil Nil 1.00(3)1.87(3)Special Ailments7. Cardiacfailure1.00 (1)Nil 1.00 (1)Nil Nil Nil 1.00 (1)1.00 (1)0.75 (3)0.25 (1)8. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. Blood Pres-sureNil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil 2.00 (1)Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 0.50 (1)Figures in parenthesis indicate the number of incidence in families,(* others include Thyroid, Sinus)Table 7.48: Incidence of diseases among adults (Male and Female) Previous occurrence (No: of months)Sl. No: DiseasesDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur TotalM F M F M F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 2.08 1.64 1.23 1.33 3.00 2.38 1.11 1.00 1.85 1.582. Body Aches 1.86 1.39 1.80 1.20 Nil 1.00 1.40 1.33 1.79 0.993. Diarrhoea 1.00 1.00 2.75 Nil Nil Nil 1.50 1.25 1.06 0.564. Gastroenteric disease 1.60 1.26 5.00 Nil Nil Nil 2.50 1.00 2.27 0.565. Skin disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil 6.00 3.00 1.00 Nil Nil 0.75 1.75Livelihood Status of Fishers in India222(v) Incidences of diseases among children The annual frequency of diseases occurring in male and female children is presented in Table 7.49. It is seen from the table that, fever/Áue, body aches and diarrhoea are the common ailments that affect the children in the two districts. The frequency of fever among male and female children was the highest in Kollam (7.57 times and 2.75 per year) than other three districts. A total of 72 children were affected by fever /Áue. The other ailments like diarrhoea and body ache was found to affect the children in comparatively a lesser frequency.(* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)Special Ailments7. Cardiacfailure 8.00 Nil 4.00 Nil Nil Nil 3.00 1.00 3.75 0.258. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. BloodPressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil 2.00 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 0.50Table 7.49: Incidence of diseases among children (Male and Female) - Annual frequencySl. No: DiseasesDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur TotalM F M F M F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 2.50(10)2.22(9)1.57(7)1.00(2)7.57(7)2.75(4)1.52(17)1.06(16)3.29(41)1.75(31)2. Body Aches Nil Nil Nil 1.00(1)Nil Nil 1.00(3)1.00(2)0.25(3)0.50(3)3. Diarrhoea 2.15(8)1.66(9)Nil Nil 10.00 (2)Nil 1.33(3)1.00(2)3.37(13)0.66(11)4. Gastroenteric diseaseNil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.00(1)1.00(3)0.25(1)0.25(3)5. Skin disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil6. Reproductive disorderNil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. CardiacfailureNil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. BloodPressureNil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilFigures in parenthesis indicate the number of incidence in families, (* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)Brackish Water Aquaculture223(vi) Incidence of disease among children: previous occurrence Apart from the frequency of occurrence of ailments, their immediate previous occurrence was also recorded and presented in Table 7.50 . It is seen from the table that, fever & Áue occurred on an average of 1.42 months ago among male children and 1.91 months ago among female children in the selected centres. The recurrence of other common ailments like body aches and diarrhoea one month and gastro-enteric disorder (1.0 month earlier in males & 1.33 months ago in female) were noticed in Thrissur district.Table 7.50:Incidence of diseases among Children (Male and Female) - Previous occurrence (No: of months)Sl. No: DiseasesDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur TotalM F M F M F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 1.40 1.66 1.14 2.00 1.85 2.25 1.29 1.75 1.42 1.912. Body Aches Nil Nil Nil 3.00 Nil Nil 1.00 1.00 0.25 1.003. Diarrhoea 1.75 1.38 Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.00 1.50 0.68 0.724. Gastroenteric disease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.00 1.33 0.25 0.335. Skin disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. Cardiacfailure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. BloodPressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil(* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)(vii) Access to health care Access to health care is an important component of disease management, which decides the time within which medical care is available to the patient. The average distance of the primary health centre (PHC) is 2.43 and hospital is 7.48 km in the study area (Table 7.51). However the hospitals are comparatively far off than the PHC in all the four selected districts. The maximum distance for the nearest hospital was in Kollam district (16.67km) and the minimum distance was in Ernakulam (3.04 km).Livelihood Status of Fishers in India224(viii) Problems in health managementThe respondent’s opinion on problems of health management was analyzed. It was found that drinking water problems (33 per cent of the respondents) , difÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance (30 per cent), poor infrastructure (29 per cent), non availability of specialist and para medicines in health centres (28 per cent) and problem on cleanliness sanitation (20 per cent) were cited as the serious problems in health management by the respondents. (Table 7.52). It is thus concluded that the basic requirements of good, potable drinking water, hygienic sanitation facilities and minimum medical facilities are still required in the study area.(ix) Suggestions to improve health care facilitiesProviding good quality drinking water (20% of total respondents) and increasing the number of doctors/specialists (20%) have been cited as the important suggestion for good health care by highest number of respondents (Table 7.53). Constructing modern hospital with all infrastructure and health care facilities (18%) and making available sufÀcient life saving medicines (15%) were ranked third and fourth suggestions for improvement of health care. Table 7.51: Access to health care (km)Sl. No. Districts Primary Health Centre Hospital1. Alappuzha 2.64 6.122. Ernakulam 1.26 3.043. Kollam 1.75 16.674. Thrissur 4.10 4.105. Average 2.43 7.48Table 7.52: Problems in health managementSl. No. ProblemsDistrictsAlappuzhaErnakulamKollamThrissurTotal1. DifÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance 3 32. Non availability of specialist and para medicines in health centers 8 17 3 283. Poor infrastructure 2 15 12 294. Lack of adequate effective medicines 2 2 45. Problems on Cleanliness/ Sanitation 12 8 206. Drinking water problem 23 10 33Brackish Water Aquaculture225D. Income profile (i) Income and expenditure patternThe average weekly income per household worked out to Rs. 1284.50 out of which 58.55per cent (Rs.752.09) is from Àsheries followed by business – 16.34per cent (Rs. 210) and other services – 10.41per cent (Rs.134.12) (Table 7.54). The income from agriculture was Rs.95.56 (7.43per cent) and labour wages were Rs.92.67 (7.41per cent). Fisheries are the major source of income, which accounted for more than 50per cent of the total income in all the districts except at Kollam, wherein its share was 21.52 per cent.). The analysis of income pattern indicated that the dependency on Àsheries is higher in all the districts but the other sources also provided a substantial support so that a lean income in Àsheries is compensated by the income from other sources.Table 7.53 :Suggestions to improve health care facilities (Frequency)Sl. No. SuggestionsDistrictsAlap-puzhaErnaku-lam KollamThris-sur Total1. Increase the number of doctors/specialists3(12.00)2(5.71)15(75.00)20(20.00)2. Make quarters facility for doctors so that they are available 24 x 75(20.00)2(5.71)7(7.00)3. Make available sufÀcient medicines for all diseases with free of cost5(14.28)10(50.00)15(15.00)4. Construct the modern hospital with all infrastructure and health care facilities.8(22.85)10(50.00)18(18.00)5. Provide ambulance for emergency (especially during delivery accidents, etc.)6. Need good drinking water facility 20(80.00)20(20.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total respondentsTable 7.54 : Income proÀle of the respondents (Weekly Rs.)Sl. No. DistrictsDistrictsFishery La-bour Agriculture BusinessAny others Total1. Alappuzha 1214.00(63.42)84.00(9.61)310.00(16.91)306.00(15.98)1914.00(100.00)2. Ernakulam 807.62(71.02)195.71(17.21)78.25(6.88)55.48(4.87)1137.08(100.00)3. Kollam 301.75(21.52)175.00(12.84)220.00(15.69)530.00(37.80)175.00(12.48)1401.75(100.00)4. Thrissur 685.00(100.00)685.00(100.00)5. Total 752.09(58.55)92.67(7.21)95.56(7.43)210.00(16.34)134.12(10.41)1284.50(100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalLivelihood Status of Fishers in India226LL(PSOR\PHQWLQQRQÀVKHULHVDFWLYLWLHVThe employment of respondents in non Àshery activities was higher in Alapuzha (21 persons: 84per cent of total respondents involved in non Àshery activities) and Kollam (17 persons, 85per cent). (Table 7.55)Table 7.55: Respondents involvement in non-Àsheries activitiesSl. No. DistrictsDistrictsLabour Agriculture Business Any others Total1. Alappuzha 7 (28.00) 3 (12.00) 11 (44.00) 21 (84.00)2. Ernakulam 4 (11.42) 3 (8.57) 2 (5.71) 9 (25.71)3. Kollam 4 (20.00) 5 (25.00) 7 (35.00) 1 (5.00) 17 (85.00)4. Thrissur5. Total 8 (8.00) 15 (15.00) 10 (10.00) 14 (14.00) 47 (47.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.56 :Pattern of expenditure of the Àsher family (Weekly)Sl. No. DistrictsItemsFood Clothing Fuel Medical Educa-tionEnter-tainmentPer-sonalDura-bles Total1. Alappuzha 796.00(52.99)60.20(4.01)42.32(2.82)66.40(4.42)84.00(5.59)16.00(1.07)287.00(19.11)150.20(9.99)1502.12(100.00)2. Ernakulam 393.42(38.97)125.28(12.41)153.47(15.20)81.00(8.02)181.54(17.98)24.40(2.41)16.71(1.65)33.62(3.33)1009.47(100.00)3. Kollam 650.00(52.93)64.00(5.21)68.25(5.55)148.20(12.06)297.50(24.22)1227.95(100.00)4. Thrissur 258.75(65.25)26.12(6.58)61.75(15.57)2.75(0.69)2.50(0.63)0.75(0.18)32.00(8.07)11.87(2.99)396.50(100.00)5. Average 524.54(50.72)68.90(6.66)81.44(7.87)74.58(7.21)141.39(13.67)10.28(0.99)83.29(8.05)48.92(4.73)1034.00(100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total(iii) Expenditure patternThe analysis of the expenditure pattern revealed that, food is the major source of expenditure of the Àshers’ household accounting for 50.72 per cent of the total expenses followed by education (13.67per cent), fuel (7.87per cent), medicines (7.21per cent) and clothing (6.66per cent) (Table 7.56). In all the four districts the percentage of income spent on food accounted for the maximum share of their respective total expenditures. This conÀrms Engels’ law of standard of living which says that the percentage of income spent on food is the highest in low income groups and the per cent share declines as the income increases – through the actual amount spent on food increases.(iv) Indebtedness and savingsThe analysis of the saving pattern indicated that, 59 per cent of the respondents had no savings, 40 per cent had savings less than 50,000 and one per cent between 50,000 and one lakh (Table 7.57).Brackish Water Aquaculture227The average indebtedness per person worked out to Rs. 85,677.67 and the average amount repaid worked out at Rs.17, 697.12 (Table 7.58). The number of persons indebted was the highest in Ernakulam – 27 persons (77.14 per cent of total respondents). (v) Sources of lendingAmong the different sources of advancing loans, co-operatives contributed to the maximum share of loan advanced (61 per cent), followed by banks (17 per cent) and private money lenders (3 per cent) (Table 7.59). It is important to note here that the cooperatives had taken the highest share breaking the hypothesis that private money lenders had the highest share in the non-institutional source of lending to Àshers.Table 7.57: Savings details of respondent householdsSl. No. DistrictsFrequency of respondents having Savings TotalNil < 50 k 50-100 k1. Alappuzha 1 (5.00) 24 (95.00) 25 (100.00)2. Ernakulam 29 (82.85) 5 (14.28) 1 (2.85) 35 (100.00)3. Kollam 9 (45.00) 11 (55.00) 20 (100.00)4. Thrissur 20 (10.00) 20 (100.00)5. Total 59 (59.00) 40 (40.00) 1 (1.00) 100 (100.00)Table 7.58: Indebtedness of the sample respondentsSl. No. DistrictsIndebtednessNumber of persons AverageAmount per personAverageAmount repaid1. Alappuzha 22 (88.00) 43500.00 10875.002. Ernakulam 27 (77.14) 150085.71 19418.513. Kollam 13 (65.00) 123800.00 34185.004. Thrissur 19 (9.50) 25325.00 6310.005. Total 81 (81.00) 85677.67 17697.12Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalFigures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.59: Sources of lending (Number of respondents who had availed)Sl. No. SourcesDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur Total1. Banks 9 (36.00) 1 (2.85) 7 (35.00) - 17 (17.00)2. Co-operative 10 (40.00) 26 (74.28) 6 (30.00) 19 (95.00) 61 (61.00)3. Private money lenders 3 (12.00) - - - 3 (3.00)(vi) Purpose of availing loansThe respondents availed loans for both Àshing and personal purposes. The maximum share of 34 per cent of the respondents availed loans for house construction / Land purchase, followed by respondents, who availed loan for purchase of craft and gears and other Àshery related equipments (29 per cent) (Table 7.60). This was followed by the loans availed for Livelihood Status of Fishers in India228performing the marriage of their wards (15 per cent) and for education of their children (3 per cent). Among the four districts the percentage of respondents who availed loans for house construction was high in Alapuzha district (56 per cent) and for Àshing purpose it was high in Thrissur district (30 per cent).YLL6XJJHVWLRQVIRUHQKDQFLQJLQFRPHDQGHPSOR\PHQWJHQHUDWLRQE\ÀVKHUPHQRespondent Àshermen of Kerala were having the opinion that arranging institutional credit through micro Ànance and SHGs will be an important option to enhance the income and employment among the Àsherfolk. IV. Brackish water Aquaculture - Tamil NaduThe results and discussions are presented under the following heads A. General particulars B. Literacy statusC. Health statusD. Income statusThe general particulars of respondent’s households included age, family size, family composition etc. A. General particulars(i) Age distribution The age distribution of respondent households are given in Table 7.61Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total *There can be multiple purposes tooTable 7.60: Purpose of availing loans (Number of respondents who had availed*)Sl. No. PurposeDistrictsAlappuzha Ernakulam Kollam Thrissur Total1.Purchase of craft/ gear and other Àshing related equipments5 (20.00) 13 (37.14) 5 (25.00) 6 (30.00) 29 (29.00)2. House construction / Land purchase 14 (56.00) 9 (25.71) 4 (20.00) 7 (35.00) 34 (34.00)3. Marriage expense 1 (4.00) 5 (14.25) 3 (15.00) 6 (30.00) 15 (15.00)4. Education 2 (8.00) 1 (5.00) 3 (3.00)5. Health and Social Security6. Any others 1 (5.00) 1 (1.00Table 7.61: Age distribution of the sample respondents (years)Sl.No. Districts <35 36-55 >56 Total1. Karaikkal 7 (23.33) 22 (73.33) 1 (3.33) 30 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 18 (24.00) 46 (31.33) 11 (14.66) 75 (100.00)3. Total 25 (23.80) 68 (64.76) 12 (11.42) 105 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalBrackish Water Aquaculture229Fishing continues to be an activity mostly done by Àsherfolk in the age group of 36-55 which constitutes about 65 per cent of the respondents. The distribution also indicated the representation of young ( age less than 35) constituting to 23 per cent. The Àsherfolk with age more than 56 was found to be 12 per cent and was represented least. The shrinkage of old age Àsherfolk representation indicates the growing complexities of the Àshing operation.The age wise distribution did not show any signiÀcant difference across the urban and rural districts selected. However the rural district of Nagapattinam indicated young Àsherfolk representing 47.05 per cent of the sample respondents which properly indicates the same as a remunerative livelihood option. It may be also seen that the percentage of younger people involved in active Àshing was found to be comparatively less in Karaikkal, on account of available alternative avocations.(ii) Family compositionThe family composition of the respondents is indicated in Table 7.62. It is seen from the table that the males outnumber the females (54 per cent). The male-female ratio was found to be 1.22:1.00 for the total households.Table 7.62: Family composition of the respondent households –Male and Female (Number)Sl.No. Districts Households Male Female Total1. Karaikkal 30 (24.00) 69 (55.20) 56 (44.80) 125 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 75 (26.50) 156 (55.12) 127 (44.87) 283 (100.00)3. Total 105 (25.11) 225 (53.82) 183 (43.77) 418 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total(iii) Family sizeFamily sizes of the respondent households are given in Table 7.63. The small family norm is mostly adopted by the Àsher households of Tamil Nadu. The average size of family in Tamil Nadu worked out to be 3.96 ranging from 3.77 in Nagapattinam to 4.16 in Karaikkal district. It is interesting to note that 76 percentages of Àsher households in Tamil Nadu is housing 2-4 members and hardly 1 per cent of households are having more than 7 members in the family. There exists no difference in the family size across the both districts which indicate the popularization of the small family norms across the state.Table 7.63: Family size of the respondent households (number)Sl. No. DistrictsFamily Size Total Average family size1 2-4 5-6 7-101. Karaikkal 21(70.00)8 (26.66)1(3.33)30(100.00) 4.162. Nagapattinam 1 (1.33)59(78.66)15(20.00)75(100.00) 3.773. Total 1(0.95)80(76.19)23(21.90)1(0.95)105(100.00) 3.96Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalLivelihood Status of Fishers in India230(iv) Age compositionThe classiÀcation of Àsher population as adults (above 15 years) and children (less than 15 years) are given in Table 7.64. The male – female ratio of the adult group (>15 years) was found to be 1.27:1.00 whereas the same for the children (<15 years) was found to be 1.05:1.00. In all other categories males outnumber the females perhaps justifying the common notion preference of males to females in the coastal areas. It is also signiÀcant to note that that the younger generation of children is almost represented mostly by males over female. The child to adult ratio was found to be 1: 4.1 for the total sample whereas for the karaikkal district it was found to be 1:1.90 and that for Nagapattinam districts it was found to be 1:6.65.The results clearly indicate that the number of children in Nagapattinam outnumber the Karaikkal district children and changing paradigms of family size in different districts.B. Literacy statusThe literacy status of the respondent households was analyzed through the literacy level, educational status – continuing and dropouts and access to educational facilities. The illiterate indicates Àsherfolk without any formal education and doesn’t even possess functional literacy.(i) Literacy status The literacy status includes the level of education as indicated by primary, secondary and collegiate. The primary level indicated schooling till fourth grade, secondary level indicated by high school, secondary and vocational education. The collegiate level of education was denoted by collegiate and professional education. The general literacy rate of Tamil Nadu as a whole was 73.52 per cent (Census-2001) against the literacy rate of 64.64 per cent among the Àsherfolk. The results indicate that among the literates 26 per cent have primary level of education, 61 per cent have secondary level of education and hardly 13 per cent have collegiate level of education. The person with primary education was more in Karaikkal than in Nagpattinam districts. The overall literacy rate for the total samples was found to be 69.13 per cent much lesser than the average state literacy rate. The literacy rate for the both districts (Karaikkal and Nagpattinam) was found to be 96 per cent and 95 per cent. The results indicate that the literacy does not seem to be skewed toward the districts among Àsher population. Also the literacy indicates higher level when compared to the state and sector average.Table 7.64: Age composition of the respondent households (Number)Sl. No. DistrictsAdult (> 15 years) Children < 15 years) TotalMale Female Male Female Male Female1. Karaikkal 47 (68.11) 35 (62.50) 22 (31.88) 21 (37.50) 69 (100.00) 56 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 137 (87.82) 109 (85.82) 19 (12.18) 18 (14.17) 156 (100.00) 127 (100.00)3. Total 184 (81.77) 144 (78.68) 41 (18.22) 39 (21.32) 225 (100.00) 183 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalBrackish Water Aquaculture231Table 7.65: Literacy status of respondent household (Number)Sl. No. Districts Total Illiterate LiteratePrimaryLevelSecondaryLevelCollegiateLevel1. Karaikkal 125 - 120 40 (33.33) 76 (63.33) 4 (3.33)2. Nagapattinam 283 12 269 36 (13.38) 199 (73.97) 34 (12.63)3. Total 418 12 289 76 (26.29) 175 (60.55) 38 (13.14)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total LL(GXFDWLRQDOSURÀOHThe information on education of the respondents in terms of continuing and discontinuance of education would provide the scope of employment, opportunities, possible migration, and alternative avocation of the sample households. Thus continuing and dropout ratios were calculated among the respondent households across the both districts. The dropouts were more at secondary level of education with 82 per cent ranging from to 76 per cent in Karikkal to 84 per cent at Nagapattinam (Table 7.66) The dropout at primary level of education was about 12 per cent ranging from 23 per cent at Karikkal to 8 per cent at Nagapattinam. The dropout at collegiate level is 7 per cent at Nagapattinam districts. The people indicated as continuing are students which form about 25 per cent of the total family members. The Continuing to Dropout ratio which indicates a parameter on increasing education was found to be 53.84 per cent for Karaikkal districts and 28 per cent for Nagapattinam districts. Alternative source of livelihood, possibility of seeking employment in Àsheries enterprises, scope of labour can be the reasons for the increasing dropouts among the urban districts Table 7.66: Educational status of respondent households - Continuing and Dropout (Number)Sl. No. Districts ContinuingDrop outsPrimary Secondary Collegiate Total1. Karaikkal 42 18 (23.07) 60 (76.92) - 78 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 61 18 (8.25) 185 (84.86) 15 (6.88) 218 (100.00)3. Total 103 36 (12.16) 245 (82.77) 15 (5.06) 296 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total (iii) Access to educational institutionsAccess to education is an important yardstick to measure the socio-economic well being of a society. The proximity of the educational institutions like primary school, high school, college and professional college provides a major impetus when it comes to continuing education. That was something the Àsherfolk were said to be denied earlier which was disproved by this analysis.The access to education was analyzed by Ànding the distance to nearby educational institutions. The average distance from Àshing villages to nearly primary, high school, college and professional institution are given in Table 7.67. As a whole the average distance to a primary school is 1.27 km, high school 2.60 km, college is 5.97 km and professional institution 14.13 km from Àshing villages in Tamil Nadu. The average distance to primary school ranges Livelihood Status of Fishers in India232from 0.81 km in Karaikkal to 1.74 km for Nagapattinam. The distance for high schools ranges from 1.95 km for Karaikkal district to 3.25 km for Nagapattinam. With regards to colleges average distance ranges from 4.30 km for Karaikkal district to 7.64 km for Nagapattinam. The average distance for professional institution ranges from 3 to 24 kms among different districts .The results very clearly indicate the reasons for growing literacy among the Àsherfolk. Thus the analyses clearly indicate that the improved or increased access to educational facilities has helped to increase the literacy level of the Àsherfolk.(C) Health statusThe average life expectancy of people in the state is worked out at 65.5 years ranging from 62.8 years for male to 68.2 years for female. The health status of the respondent households was studied based on the parameters like administration of vaccines, incidence of discontinuation, birth weight of infants, incidence of maternal and child mortality at the time of birth, incidence of common diseases and special ailments among adults and children. Disease management aspects like access to health care, problems in health management and suggestions to improve the health care facilities are also dealt in this session. (i) Vaccination regime of infants / children (less than 15 years)The average age of administration of vaccination and incidence of discontinuation among infants/ children with age less than 15 years in the selected coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is furnished in Table 7.68. The vaccination for Pox, BCG, MMR and Polio were regularly taken by all the families covered under the study. The average age at which the vaccination for pox was given to the child worked out at 1.05 years ranging from 1.00 years at Nagapattinam to 1.10 years at Karikkal. The BCG was administered at 10.65 years ranging from 0.43years Table 7.67: Access to education (Distance in km)Sl. No. DistrictsDistance to nearby educational institution ( in km)Primary School High School College Professional College1. Karaikkal 0.81 1.95 4.30 3.832. Nagapattinam 1.74 3.25 7.64 24.423. Total 1.27 2.60 5.97 14.13Table 7.68:Vaccination regime of infants / children (less than 15 years) – Average Age of administration and incidence of discontinuationNormally polio administration continues till the age of 5 years *Figures in percentage indicate incidence of discontinuation (IOD)Sl. No.Average age of administration andincidence of discontinuation (percentage) Districts Pox BCG MMR PolioAge IOD* (%) Age IOD (%) Age IOD (%) Age IOD (%)1. Karaikkal 1.10 0 0.88 0 1.00 0 2.59 02. Nagapattinam 1.00 0 0.43 0 - 0 4.36 03. Average 1.05 0 0.65 0 0.50 0 3.32 0Brackish Water Aquaculture233at Nagapattinam to 0.88 years at Karikkal. The average age for administering MMR was 0.50 years which varies from 0 years at Nagapattinam to 1.00years at Karikkal. Polio vaccine was administered at the age of 3.32 years varying from 2.59 at Karikkal to 4.36 at Nagapattinam. The vaccination regime of infants/children wide taken that the results on regime in continued as per the recommendation of ICMR.The traditional beliefs and lack of awareness about the availability of vaccines, lack of time to access the vaccination, lack of sufÀcient doses of vaccine at the locality and poor reliability on vaccines provided by government agencies were listed as the reasons for discontinuation of vaccination in the questionnaire. However in Tamil Nadu no cases of discontinuation of vaccination among the infants of Àsherfolk were reported in the study area.(ii) Birth weight of infantsThe birth weight of infants in Àsher households at selected districts is given in Table 7.69. The average birth weight of males was 2.91 kg and female was 2.75 kg. The average weight of male infants ranges from 3014 kg at Karaikkal to 2.69 kg at Nagapattinam and female infants ranges from 2.91 kg at Karaikkal to 2.60 kg at Nagapattinam. This is in conformity with the average birth weight of a male and female child in Tamil Nadu (Census-2001).Table 7.69: Birth weight of infants (kg)Sl. No. DistrictsWeight (kg)Male Female Total1. Karaikkal 3.14 2.91 3.022. Nagapattinam 2.69 2.60 2.643. Average 2.91 2.75 2.83(iii) Incidence of mortality among mother/ child during birthMaternal and child mortality at the time of birth and infant mortality had been pressing concerns over the past. The incidence of mortality was and it was found that these exists no incidence of maternal mortality across all selected respondent Àsherfolk. One case of infant mortality was reported. Generally in Tamil Nadu, adequate care is being taken now to reduce the incidence of maternal and infant mortality which was recognized by a Central report.(iv) Incidence of diseases among adults The incidence, frequency, and previous occurrence of diseases among the adult family members of the respondents across the four coastal districts are discussed in the Table 7.70. Major diseases found among the respondents were categorized under two groups, viz common diseases and special ailments. Fever/Áu, body ache, diarrhoea, gastro enteric disease, skin disorder, reproductive disorders are included in common diseases. Special ailments include diseases like cardiac failure, tuberculosis, anemia, diabetics, blood pressure, AIDS and others.The important common diseases found among respondents across the two districts of Tamil Nadu were fever, body ache, diarrhoea and skin disorder in which more number of family members (160) irrespective of their gender differences affected by fever/Áu.Livelihood Status of Fishers in India234However body ache was found to be more among females with an average frequency of 0.54 times per year and 8 male and 12 female family members of the respondents were affected by body ache last year. Diarrhoea was found commonly among male members than females and 30 male and 29 female family members were affected by diarrhoea last year. Skin disorder also was found more among male family members of the total respondents than females The district wise distribution of common diseases indicated that occurrence of common diseases like fever, body ache, diarrhoea, skin disorder, and reproductive disorder etc were found high in Karaikkal district in terms of both frequency and number of incidence.Reported cases of special ailments found among the families of respondents across the two districts encompass cardiac failure, TB, etc. However TB was found more among male family members of the total respondents across the districts. There was not even a single member with special ailments or life style diseases like Anemia, diabetics, blood pressure, and AIDS were seen among the respondent families in Tamil Nadu.It is quite interesting to note that the respondent households were not affected with life style diseases. The occurrence of diarrhoea and skin diseases can be added to lack of hygienic and coastal population.Table 7.70. Incidence of diseases among Adult (Male and Female) - Annual frequencySl. No. DiseasesDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam TotalM F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 1.05 (30) 1.34 (29) 1.28 (21) Nil 1.16 (51) 0.67 (29)2. Body Aches 1.00 (8) 1.08 (12) Nil Nil 0.50 (8) 0.54 (12)3. Diarrhoea 1.10 (30) 1.31 (29) Nil Nil 0.55 (30) 0.6 (29)4. Gastroenteric disease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil5. Skin disorder 1.00 (1) Nil 2.70 (34) Nil 0.50 (1) Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil 1.00 (1) Nil 0.50 (1) Nil8. TB Nil Nil 1.00 (3) Nil 0.50 (3) Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* 1.00 (1) 1.00 (1) 1.00 (1) Nil 0.50 (1) NilFigures in parenthesis indicate the number of incidence in families,(* others include Thyroid, Sinus)Brackish Water Aquaculture235(v) Incidence of diseases among adult (male and female) previous occurrence The previous occurrence of diseases among adults (male and female) based on the number of months is discussed in Table 7.71.In continuation with the above table, the major diseases found within the study area of Tamil Nadu district under the title of common diseases were fever/Áu, body ache, diarrhoea, gastro enteric disease, skin disorder, reproductive disorder etc The most common diseases found among the respondent families were fever and body ache. On an average most recent occurrence of fever/Áu was found among male members of the respondent families was 1.95 months and it was 0.91 months among female members .In the case of body ache the previous occurrence was found in 2.31 months in males and 1.25 months ago in females. Occurrence of diarrhoea and skin disorder was seen among male members only in the last quarter of the year. However its occurrence among female members was found 0.87 months and 0.80 months back respectively.The most common special ailments found among the respondents were cardiac failure, TB and anemia etc. Previous occurrence of cardiac failure and TB among the male members was found in the last quarter of the year, whereas in the case of females it was found in last month. Incidents of anemia found in last month in the case of both male and female respondents.Table 7.71: Incidence of diseases among adult (Male and Female) Previous occurrence (Number of months)Sl. No. DiseasesDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam TotalM F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 1.86 1.82 2.04 Nil 1.95 0.912. Body Aches 2.62 2.50 2.00 Nil 2.31 1.253. Diarrhoea 1.60 1.75 Nil Nil 0.80 0.874. Gastroenteric disease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil5. Skin disorder 4.00 Nil 1.91 Nil 1.95 Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil 12.00 Nil 6.00 Nil8. TB Nil Nil 8.00 Nil 4.00 Nil9. Anemia Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* 2.00 2.00 2.00 Nil 2.00 1.00(* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)Livelihood Status of Fishers in India236 (vi) Incidence of diseases among children (Male and Female) - Annual frequencyThe annual frequency on the incidence of diseases among children (Male and Female) is furnished in Table 7.72.Major diseases found among the children in the study area were fever/Áu, body ache, diarrhoea, gastroenteric disease, skin disorder etc in which fever was the most popular disease found among the children and it was distributed across all the sample districts on Tamil Nadu. The average frequency of fever among male children was 2.88 times per year and a total of 15 male children were affected by fever across the two districts last year. In the case of female children a total number of 17 were affected by fever with an average annual frequency of 1.15 times per year.Incidence of diarrhoea was also high among the children with a total frequency of 1.07 times per year among the male children and 0.50 times per year among female children. It was found that occurrence of common diseases like fever, body ache, and diarrhoea were high in Karaikkal both in the case of adults and children.Occurrence of special ailments among the children was found to be very low compared with that of common diseases. Only anemia were reported among the children of respondent families across the sample districts Tamil Nadu. In the case of anemia only one female were affected with a frequency of 0.50 times in a year across the two districts of Tamil Nadu.Table 7.72: Incidence of diseases among children (Male and Female) - Annual frequency Sl. No. DiseasesDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam TotalM F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 2.41 (12) 1.31 (16) 3.30 (3) 1.00 (1) 2.88 (15) 1.15 (17)2. Body Aches 1.00 (2) Nil Nil Nil 0.50 (2) Nil3. Diarrhoea 2.15 (13) 1.00 (17) Nil Nil 1.07 (13) 0.50 (17)4. Gastroenteric disease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil5. Skin disorder 1.00 (1) Nil Nil Nil 0.50 (1) Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil 1.00 (1) Nil Nil Nil 0.50 (1)10. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilFigures in parenthesis indicate the number of incidence in families,(* others include Thyroid, Sinus)Brackish Water Aquaculture237(vii) Incidence of diseases among children -Previous occurrence The previous occurrence of diseases among children based on the number of months is discussed in Table 7.73.In continuation with the above table, the major diseases found among the children of the respondent families within the study area include common diseases like fever/Áu, body ache, diarrhoea, gastroenteric disease, skin disorder etc. The most common diseases found among children of the respondent families were fever and diarrhoea. On an average last occurrence of fever/Áu found among the male children of the respondent families was 1.45 months ago and it was 1.62 months back in the case of female children. In the case of diarrhoea the previous occurrence was found in 1.46 months ago in male children and 0.85 months ago in female children. Occurrence of body ache among the children of respondent families was found in 1.25 month back in the case of males. Skin disorder was also found among the males respondent families with the occurrence of 1.50 month back. The most common special ailments found among children of respondent families is anemia. Incidence of anemia was reported in female children.Table 7.73: Incidence of diseases among children (Male and Female) -Previous occurrence (No: of months)Sl. No. DiseasesDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam TotalM F M F M FCommon Diseases1. Fever/Flu 2.16 2.75 0.75 0.50 1.45 1.622. Body Aches 2.50 Nil Nil Nil 1.25 Nil3. Diarrhoea 2.92 1.70 Nil Nil 1.46 0.854. Gastroenteric disease Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil5. Skin disorder 3.00 Nil Nil Nil 1.50 Nil6. Reproductive disorder Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil NilSpecial Ailments7. Cardiac failure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil8. TB Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil9. Anemia Nil 2.00 Nil Nil Nil 1.0010. Diabetes Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil11. Blood Pressure Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil12. AIDS Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil13. Others* Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil(* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)(viii) Access to health care The access to health care is also an important parameter which determines the continued health of the Àsherfolk. Often the distance leads to the non treatment or its delay. The access to health care was measured using the distance required to avail the same. (Table Livelihood Status of Fishers in India2387.74). The results indicate that there exists considerable access to the primary health centre and hospital. On an average the primary health centre was available at a distance of 2.10 km and the hospital at 12.70 km. Karaikkal districts indicated the proximity of the primary health centre and hospital at a distance of 1.40 and 4.20 km respectively. (ix) Problems in health management The major problems underwent in health management was analyzed based on the opinion of the sample respondents. The major reasons cited by the respondents are indicated in Table 7.75. The major reasons suggested include difÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance, non availability of specialist and para medicines in health centers, poor infrastructure, lack of adequate effective medicines, problems on cleanliness/ sanitation, drinking water problem and work related stress.Work related stress was the major problem as perceived by the respondent’s households (38.09 per cent). 23.80 per cent of the respondents opined on the poor infrastructure, 16.19 per cent for drinking water problem and 19.04 has the difÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance.Table 7.74: Access to health care (km)Sl. No. Districts Primary Health Centre Hospital1. Karaikkal 1.40 4.202. Nagapattinam 2.81 21.203. Total 2.10 12.70(* Others include Thyroid, Sinus)Table 7.75 : Problems in health management (Frequency)Sl. No. ProblemsDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam Total1. DifÀculty in accessing the hospital due to distance - 20 (26.66) 20 (19.04)2. Non availability of specialist and paramedicines in health centers 8 (26.66) - 8 (7.61)3. Poor infrastructure 15 (50.00) 10 (13.33) 25 (23.80)4. Lack of adequate effective medicines 6 (20.00) - 6 (5.71)5. Problems on Cleanliness/ Sanitation 8 (26.66) 8 (10.66) 16 (15.23)6. Drinking water problem 5 (16.66) 12 (16.00) 17 (16.19)7. Work related stress - 40 (53.33) 40 (38.09)8. Others - - -Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total respondents Number of respondents who had opined on the same(x) Suggestions to improve healthcare facilitiesThe respondent households opined on the different suggestions for improving the health care facilities and the details are furnished in Table 7.76. The major suggestions from Brackish Water Aquaculture239the respondents of Kariaikkal and Nagapattinam includes increasing the number of doctors/specialists, construction of quarters facility for doctors so that they are available 24 x 7, providing available sufÀcient medicines for all diseases with free of cost, construction of the modern hospital with all infrastructure and healthcare facilities, provision of ambulance for emergency (especially during delivery accidents, etc.) and providing good drinking water facility.D. Income statusThe income proÀling of the respondent households are analyzed using income patterns, respondents involvement in non Àsheries activities and expenditure pattern. In addition the indebtedness and savings were analyzed using details on savings, indebtedness , sources of lending organization, purpose of availing loan and suggestions for enhancing the income and employment generation(i) Income patternThe income pattern of the respondent household were analyzed using the weekly income across the two coastal districts of Tamil Nadu including Nagapattinam and karaikkal are discussed in the Table 7.77.Table 7.76: Suggestions to improve health care facilities (Frequency)Sl. No. SuggestionsDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam Total1. Increase the number of doctors/specialists 12 (40.00) 13 (17.33) 25 (23.80)2. Make quarters facility for doctors so that they are available 24 x 7 8 (26.66) 7 (9.33) 15 (14.28)3. Make available sufÀcient medicines for all diseases with free of cost 19 (63.33) 2 (2.66) 21 (20.00)4. Construct the modern hospital with all infrastructure and health care facilities. 2 (2.66) 2 (2.66) 4 (3.80)5. Provide ambulance for emergency (especially during delivery accidents, etc.) - - -6. Need good drinking water facility 9 (30.00) 22 (29.33) 31 (29.52)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total respondentsNumber of respondents who had opined on the sameTable 7.77: Income status of the respondents (Monthly Rs)Sl. No. DistrictsEnterpriseFishery Labour Agriculture Business Any others Total1. Karaikkal 5675.20 (94.19)183.32 (3.04)66.64 (1.10) -100.00 (1.65)6025.00 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 5796.84 (38.27)4172.16 (27.54)1153.96 (7.61)1654.00 (10.92)2368.92 (15.64)15145.90 (100.00)3. Total 8327.68 (60.15)2177.72 (15.73)610.32 (4.40)827.00 (5.97)1901.16 (13.73)13844.00 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalLivelihood Status of Fishers in India240The major income sources of the respondent households comprised of income from Àshery, business, agriculture, labour services, and other service sectors. The highest weekly average income generated by the total respondents across the two districts was through Àsheries sector with an average amount of ` 8327.68 (60.15 per cent of the total income) followed by income from labour sector at ` 2177.72(15.73%), and other service sector at ` 1901.16 (13.73%) The district wise weekly income status of the respondents indicated that Nagapatinam district had all sources of income which includes Àsheries sector (38.27%), Labour (27.54%), Agriculture (7.61%) etc which was contributing an average weekly income of `15145.90. In Karaikkal district the average income shared by Àsheries sector, labour and other service sectors was 94.19 and 3.04 and 1.65 per cent respectively.LL,QYROYHPHQWLQQRQÀVKHULHVDFWLYLWLHVThe Involvement of respondent’ households in non Àsheries activities are illustrated in the Table 7.78. The analysis on the respondent’ households involvement in the non Àsheries activities indicated that 44 per cent of the total respondents were involved in non-Àsheries activities, which provided an additional source of income. The major non Àshing activities involved by respondents were business, labour, and other service sectors with a contribution of 17.33, 50 and 36 per cent respectively. The total number of respondents involved in business was 35 per cent in Nagapattinam district. In Nagapattinam 87 per cent of the respondents involved in labour activities which might be due to the higher wage rate prevailing in the state. It was found that there was not even a single respondent involved in business activities in the Karaikkal district. The result clearly indicated the existence and practice of alternative avocation do exist holds good in the selected respondent households.(iii) Pattern of expenditure The major household expenses measured include expenditure on food, clothing, fuel, medical, education, entertainment, personals and durables. The result of the pattern of weekly expenditure is represented in Table 7.79.The average weekly expenditure pattern of the 140 households worked out that on an average `4530.92 was incurred on the households with `1936.88 (42.74 per cent) on food and `384.76 (8.49 per cent) on medical. The least expenditure was `259.04 (5.71 per cent) for entertaintments.. Table 7.78: Respondents involvement in non-Àsheries activities Sl. No. Districts Labour Agriculture Business Any others Total1. Karaikkal 4 (13.33) 1 (3.33) - 1 (3.33) 6 (0.53)2. Nagapattinam 65 (86.66) 38 (50.66) 26 (34.66) 52 (69.33) 181(96.79)3. Total 69 (49.99) 39 (26.99) 26 (17.33) 53 (36.33) 187(100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalBrackish Water Aquaculture241The total expenditure pattern of the selected districts indicates that the highest household expenditure was noticed in Nagapattinam with an average amount of ` ‘5891.88 and the least in Karaikkal districts ` 3.170.00. In Nagapattinam Àsherfolks spent more on education purpose with an average amount of ` 609.64(10.34 per cent) than karaikkal district.The Àsherfolk of Karaikkal district spent 71.50 % for food,5.08% for clothing and 5.30 percentage respectively on personal expenditure .In Nagapattinam the least expenditure was incurred on fuel and entertaintment at 9.07 and 8.79 per cent respectively. The medical expense was also high in Nagapattinam which is `658.36 (11.17 per cent) when compared with other selected coastal districts.The results table clearly spelt out that the expenditure incurred on food contribute the most of the family expenditure. Education, Entertainment and Social Security measures hold increasing proposition in the family expenditure across the selected coastal districts.(iv) Indebtedness and SavingsThe indebtedness and savings of the respondent households are indicted in Table 7.80.Table 7.79: Expenditure pattern of the Àsher family (Monthly Rs.)Sl. No. DistrictsItemsFood Cloth-ing FuelMedi-calEdu-cationEnter-tainmentPer-sonalDura-bles Total1. Karaikkal 2266.64 (71.50)161.20 (5.08)221.72 (6.99)111.20 (3.50)107.60 (3.39) -133.32 (4.20)168.24 (5.30)3170.00 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 1607.12 (27.27)769.32 (130.5)534.72 (9.07)658.36 (11.17)609.64 (10.34)518.12 (8.79)578.40 (9.81)616.08 (10.45)5891.88 (100.00)3. Total 1936.88 (42.74)465.24 (10.26)378.20 (8.34)384.76 (8.49)358.60 (7.91)259.04 (5.71)355.88 (7.85)392.16 (8.65)4530.92 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.80: Savings details of respondent householdsSl. No. DistrictsFrequency of respondents having Savings TotalNil < 50 k 50-100.00k >100.00K1. Karaikkal 30 (100.00) - - - 30 (100.00)2. Nagapattinam 1 (1.33) 63 (84.00) 9 (12.00) 2 (2.66) 75 (100.00)3. Total 31 (29.52) 63 (60.00) 9 (8.57) 2 (1.90) 105 (100.00)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalThe saving details of the respondent’s household indicated that 29.52 per cent of the respondents have no savings. 60 per cent of the respondent households possessed a saving of less than `50000. It is signiÀcant to note that 95 per cent of the households which had savings were from Nagapattinam district. Lack of savings or dis savings related to the need for indebtedness for the sustenance of the livelihoods. The average savings of a Nagapattinam household was found to be `935000. The plight of respondent households from Karaikkal is well understood where none of them possess savings. Livelihood Status of Fishers in India242(v) IndebtednessThe lack of savings and the need for the sustenance of the livelihood often lead to indebtedness. The pattern of indebtedness of respondent households across the two coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is discussed in Table 7.81.The results indicated that the average amount of indebtedness per person was ` 71,066.66 in which the highest average amount of indebtedness was recorded in Nagapattinam district with `129800. On an average 14.81 per cent of the availed loans was repaid .The analysis of repayment of the availed indebtedness indicated that the respondents households in Karaikkal repaid 16.18 per cent of the loans availed whereas the least repayment was found in Nagapattinam 14.68 per cent respectively.(vi) Sources of lending The indebtedness often results in availing loans from the different institutions. The major sources of lending organizations include banks, co-operatives, private money lenders, friends/relatives and jewel loans. The details of the sources of money lending as availed by the respondent households is furnished in Table 7.82. A total of 86 respondents had availed loans for various purposes. It was found that private money lenders constituted the major source of lending organizations with more than 24.76 of the respondent household availing credit. Banks provided credit to 35 respondents and constituted more than 20 per cent of the sample respondents.Table 7.81: Indebtedness of the respondents householdsSl. No. Districts Number of persons AverageAmount per personAverageAmount repaid1. Karaikkal 7 (23.33) 12333.33 1996.66 (16.18)2. Nagapattinam 60 (80.00) 129800.00 19063.20 (14.68)3. Total 67 (63.08) 71066.66 10529.93 (14.81)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalTable 7.82. Sources of lending Sl. No. SourcesDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam Total1. Banks - 21 (28.00) 21 (20.00)2. Co-operative 1 (3.33) 13 (17.33) 14 (13.33)3. Private money lenders 5 (16.66) 21 (28.00) 26 (24.76)4. Friends / Relatives - - -5. Jewel loans 1 (3.33) 5 (6.66) 6 (5.71)6. Others 7 (23.33) - 7 (6.66)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to totalBrackish Water Aquaculture243Cooperatives provided 13.33 per cent loan to the respondents where as jewel loans lesser signiÀcance as a lending organization has with hardly 5 per cent of the respondents availing loan. It was important to note that in Karaikkal and Nagapattinam the respondent’s household exhibited dependency towards private money lender.The analysis indicate that the non institutional credit still holds good among the Àshers in Tamil Nadu .It was found that the highest number of respondents (24.76 per cent) was depending on private money lenders for borrowing money in emergency situation.(vii) Purpose of availing loansThe details on the purpose of availing loans and number of loans availed by the respondent households are indicated in Table 7.83.The major purposes for which loans were availed include purchase of craft/gear and other Àshing related equipments, house construction/land purchase, marriage expenses., education and health and social security etc.The purpose of house construction and land purchase was the major reason for availing loans. It was found that of the 85 respondents who availed loans, more than 23.8 per cent was availed for the purpose of purchase of craft/gears and other Àshing related equipments, 22.85 per cent for the marriage expense,6.66 per cent for house construction and land purchase found importance among the respondent households. In Nagapattinam district of Tamil Nadu the major chunk of loans were attributed towards purchase of craft/gear and other Àshing related equipments (32%) followed by house construction and land purchase (30.66%). In Karaikkal district 10 per cent of the respondent’s availed loans for house construction and land purchase followed by 3.33 per cent towards purchase of craft/gear and other Àshing related equipments. (xxv) Suggestions to enhance the income and employment generationThe percentage response of the respondents’ suggestions for enhancing the income and employment generation by Àshermen is indicated in Table 7.83.Table 7.83 Purpose of availing loans (Number of respondents who had availed)Sl. No. PurposeDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam Total1. Purchase of craft/ gear and other Àshing related equipments 1 (3.33) 24 (32.00) 25 (23.80)2. House construction / Land purchase 3 (10.00) 4 (5.33) 7 (6.66)3. Marriage expense 1 (3.33) 23 (30.66) 24 (22.85)4. Education - 5 (6.66) 5 (4.76)5. Health and Social Security 1 (3.33) 4 (5.33) 5 (4.76)6. Any others 1 (3.33) - 1 (0.95)Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total Livelihood Status of Fishers in India244The major suggestions perceived by the households included arranging the institutional À nancial support like micro credit for À sher folk SHG, etc, regulation of À sh marketing through institutional interventions vocational training for À sherwomen to undertake house hold income activities during dry/off season regulation of PDS and supply of the basic food items and fuel(like kerosene, LPG, etc) by the Govt. agencies and provision of rural infrastructure for general societal/human development.The percentage response of the respondents indicated that 45.71per cent of the respondents felt that arranging the institutional À nancial support like micro credit for À sheries, SHG, etc can provide a major impetus in enhancing the income. There were no suggestions on Vocational training for À sherwomen to undertake household income activities during dry/ off season, regulation of PDS and supply of the basic food items and fuel (like kerosene, LPG, etc) by the Govt. agencies and provision of rural infrastructure for general societal / human development found a meek response among the respondents in both the districts.Table 7.85. Suggestions for enhance the income and employmentgeneration by À shermen (Percentage response)Sl. No. SuggestionsDistrictsKaraikkal Nagapattinam Total1.Arranging the institutional À nancial support like micro credit for À sheries, SHG, etc3 (10.00) 45 (60.00) 48 (45.71)2. Regulation of À sh marketing through institutional interventions - - -3.Vocational training for À sherwomen to undertake house hold income activities during dry/ off season2 (6.66) 1 (1.33) 3 (2.85)4.Regulation of PDS and supply of the basic food items and fuel(like kerosene ,LPG,etc) by the Govt. agencies- - -5. Provisional of rural infrastructure for general societal / human development - - -Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to total

Brackish Water Aquaculture

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Brackish Water Aquaculture

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