Quantitative microbial risk assessment with respect to Campylobacter spp. in toilets flushed with harvested rainwater

In light of increasing pressures on water supplies in some areas, water demand management and water conservation techniques are likely to become increasingly prevalent. In-house systems using alternatives to mains supplies for nonpotable uses present one such option for reducing potable water demand. This paper, through a formal desk-based health impact assessment (HIA) and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), examines one of the possible health implications (Campylobacter infection from toilet flushing) resulting from the use of rainwater harvesting in the home in the United Kingdom. This is investigated using data from the literature and a hypothetical case study population of over 4000 people (based on data for the ‘average’ population in England), with the results being expressed as disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (on an annual basis) and placed in context of the ‘tolerable’ risk from drinking-water supplie