Identifying Barriers to Effective Private Schooling for the Marginalized: A Case Study on Language Practices and Education Quality in Low-Cost Private Community Schools in Kibera, Nairobi

A growing sector of low-cost private schools is providing basic education to some of the poorest people in the world, mainly living in urban slums and underdeveloped rural communities. There is concern about the life conditions of slum dwellers, while education is seen as a key motor for development. As more and more countries have made at least primary education free of fees in compliance with the Education for All agenda, these poorest communities do not seem to benefit from this policy and opt for low-cost private schools instead. At the same time, there is concern about the quality of education that these schools are able to deliver. Many operate below the radar of government control and have access to very few resources. Furthermore there is apprehension that these schools take advantage of the lack of public education delivery by the government, taking money from poor households and giving little in return. In Kenyan slums, education is seen as one of very few ways to escape a life in poverty. Parents want their children to enjoy a good quality education in order to provide them with opportunities to live a better life and escape the slums. The gaps between rich and poor are increasing despite considerable national economic growth, and the current education system seems to reproduce and exacerbate inequality. The purchase of educational services from private operators is traditionally seen as a mechanism that provides the privileged with a better quality education than the public schools can offer. The international development community is concerned about the low levels of literacy in the sub-Saharan African region. The longstanding focus on increasing access to educational opportunities for all is now complemented by the focus on increasing the quality of education, in order to provide learners in primary school with basic literacy and numeracy skills. This thesis argues that a focus on quality and literacy in the African context must involve a critical examination of the use of European languages in education. English is the official language in Kenya and is broadly used in education, but it is hardly spoken in slum environments where Kiswahili functions as the lingua franca. Language is not only a tool of human communication but also a carrier of symbolic, social and cultural capital. This study sets out to critically examine the quality of education and language use in low-cost private schools in Kenya s largest slum Kibera, found in the western part of the capital Nairobi. It applies a qualitative multiple case study of three low-cost private schools in different parts of Kibera, centring on local community members. The study found that in general, the main barriers to quality education are caused by policy, financial constraints and the community environment. Multiple reasons were also found for why parents enrol their children in low-cost private schools instead of no-fee public schools, the most important being a recognition of a higher level of education quality and more accountable teachers in low-cost private schools. It is argued that parents of low socio-economic households choose to enrol their children in low-cost primary schools for practical and quality reasons alike. The study found similar teaching practices in all three schools. In examining the use of languages in schools, a disconnection was found between the natural use of languages among inhabitants of the Kibera slum and the language policy and practice in the three schools. Classroom observation revealed a coping strategy of code switching, especially when teachers applied English as the language of instruction. The amount of code switching was compared between the different core subjects. Another important finding was the influence of the national examination system on curriculum and pedagogy, including the choice of language of instruction