From mycoheterotrophy to mutualism: Mycorrhizal specificity and functioning in Ophioglossum vulgatum sporophytes

Mycorrhizal functioning in the fern Ophioglossum is complex and poorly understood. It is unknown whether mature O. vulgatum sporophytes form mutualistic associations with fungi of the Glomeromycota and with what specificity. Are green sporophytes able to 'repay' fungal carbon (C) invested in them by mycorrhizal partners during the initially heterotrophic gametophyte and early sporophyte stages of the lifecycle? We identified fungal partners of O. vulgatum sporophytes using molecular techniques and supplied them with 33P-orthophosphate and O. vulgatum sporophytes with 14CO2. We traced the movement of fungal-acquired nutrients and plant-fixed C between symbionts and analysed natural abundance 13C and 15N isotope signatures to assess nutritional interactions. We found fungal specificity of O. vulgatum sporophytes towards a mycorrhizal fungus closely related to Glomus macrocarpum. Our radioisotope tracers revealed reciprocal C-for-phosphorus exchange between fern sporophytes and fungal partners, despite competition from surrounding vegetation. Monocultures of O. vulgatum were enriched in 13C and 15N, providing inconclusive evidence of mycoheterotrophy when experiencing competition from the surrounding plant community. We show mutualistic and specific symbiosis between a eusporangiate fern and fungi of the Glomeromycota. Our findings suggest a 'take now, pay later' strategy of mycorrhizal functioning through the lifecycle O. vulgatum, from mycoheterotrophic gametophyte to mutualistic aboveground sporophyte