Snapshot 3D electron imaging of structural dynamics

In order to understand the physical properties of materials it is necessary to determine the 3D positions of all atoms. There has been significant progress towards this goal using electron tomography. However, this method requires a relatively high electron dose and often extended acquisition times which precludes the study of structural dynamics such as defect formation and evolution. In this work we describe a method that enables the determination of 3D atomic positions with high precision from single high resolution electron microscopic images of graphene that show dynamic processes. We have applied this to the study of electron beam induced defect coalescence and to long range rippling in graphene. The latter strongly influences the mechanical and electronic properties of this material that are important for possible future applications