More than Words Alone: Reference to Motion in L3 Learners’ Oral Narratives

Cross-linguistic influence in L3 acquisition appears to be mediated by a complex interplay of factors, among which L2 status and perceived typological distance appear to be the most important ones, at least at the lexical and syntactic levels. Few studies on L3 acquisition have looked at cross-linguistic influence at more conceptual levels. Using Talmy’s typology of verb-framed vs. satellite-framed languages (Talmy, 1991, 2000a, 2000b), and Slobin’s thinking-for-speaking hypothesis (Slobin, 1987, 1991, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006) as a framework, the present study investigates the existence of cross-linguistic influence in the expression of motion in Spanish as an L3. This cross-linguistic influence will not only be examined in the direction of the L1 to the L2 and the L3, but also in the opposite direction, i.e. from the L2 or the L3 to the L1, so-called reverse transfer (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). According to Slobin’s hypothesis, native speakers become accustomed to the patterns of event construal that are specific to their L1. Such patterns are especially visible in the expression of motion events, as verb-framed and satellite-framed languages differ greatly with respect to the amount of attention speakers pay to Manner of motion. Moreover, in verb-framed languages, Manner of motion cannot be expressed by the main verb when there is motion across a spatial boundary, the so-called “boundary-crossing constraint” (Slobin and Hoiting, 1994). Therefore, acquiring a typologically different L2 or L3 entails the need for restructuring of L1 thinking for speaking patterns, or rethinking for speaking (Robinson and Ellis, 2008). However, differences in patterns of motion-event construal between languages may not be as accessible to awareness as differences in, for instance, lexical items and syntax. Therefore, the roles played by L2 status and perceived typological distance in cross-linguistic influence between thinking for speaking patterns in L3 acquisition remain unclear. The main experiment of the present study consisted of an oral narration of the frog story (Mayer, 1969). Two experimental groups of additive trilinguals (L1 English – L2 French – L3 Spanish, and L1 French – L2 English – L3 Spanish), as well as two control groups of additive bilinguals (L1 English – L2 Spanish, and L1 French – L2 Spanish), and three control groups of monolinguals (L1 English, L1 French, and L1 Spanish) told the story to a researcher in each of their languages. French and Spanish are both verb-framed languages, whereas English is a satellite-framed language. The participants’ narrations were analysed for how they had made reference to motion. The results indicated that in L3 acquisition, cross-linguistic influence in thinking for speaking patterns takes place in all directions and between all languages, being mediated by frequency of use and proficiency, and, to a lesser extent, also perceived typological distance. Nevertheless, L1 thinking for speaking patterns turned out to be very pervasive, especially with respect to the types of elements participants had used for making reference to Manner of motion. In addition, the expression of Manner of motion in L1 English bi- and trilinguals turned out to be affected by the thinking for speaking patterns from their other, verb-framed language(s). This suggests that thinking-for-speaking patterns are not entirely language-specific, and that L1 patterns can be restructured under the influence of increased use and proficiency in a typologically different language.El presente trabajo investiga la transferencia interlingüística en la expresión del movimiento en español L3. El marco teórico de esta investigación lo constituyen la tipología talmiana de lenguas de marco verbal y lenguas de marco satélite (Talmy, 1991, 2000, 2000b) y la hipótesis de pensar para hablar de Slobin (1987, 1991, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006). Se investiga tanto la transferencia de la L1 a la L2 y la L3 como la transferencia inversa de la L3 y la L2 a la L1, y se presta especial atención a los factores de L2 status y psicotipología. Durante los experimentos, dos grupos experimentales de trilingües aditivos (L1 inglés – L2 francés – L3 español y L1 francés – L2 inglés – L3 español) narraron la historia de la rana o frog story (Mayer, 1969) en cada una de sus lenguas. Tanto el español como el francés son lenguas de marco verbal, mientras que el inglés es una lengua de marco satélite. Además de los dos grupos experimentales, participaron dos grupos de control de bilingües aditivos (L1 inglés – L2 español y L1 francés y L2 español) y tres grupos de control de hablantes monolingües (L1 inglés, L1 francés, L1 español. Las narraciones de los participantes fueron analizadas con respecto a la expresión del movimiento. Los resultados muestran que hay transferencia interlingüística en todas las direcciones y entre todas las lenguas. Factores como el nivel lingüístico y el uso resultan ser especialmente importantes, y en menor medida también lo es la psicotipología. Se observa una clara transferencia del pensar para hablar de las L1 de los participantes en las narraciones en L3 español. Además, la L1 de los bilingües y trilingües con L1 inglés muestra algunas características más propias del pensar para hablar en francés y/o español en la referencia que hacen estos participantes a la manera de movimiento. Esto sugiere que parte del pensar para hablar es compartida entre lenguas, y que los patrones del pensar para hablar de la L1 pueden ser ‘repensados’ bajo la influencia de una o más lenguas tipológicamente distintas