European identities in comparative perspective

This chapter explores patterns of European and national identity and examines whether there have been any trends over time towards the emergence of a European identity. It focuses on the comparison of the trends since 2004 in European identities, satisfaction with European democracy and national unemployment rates. The stability of the trends in levels of European identities contrast very markedly with the trends in satisfaction with European Union (EU) democracy, which took a major hit in the EU countries which had seen major increases in unemployment. The chapter discusses three main grounds for expecting long-term change. First, the increasing internal migration within the EU, largely although not exclusively the result of the free movement of labour principle. Second, the long-term increases in the educational levels of European populations - higher education tending to be associated with greater European-ness. Third, generational change as younger generations with dual and European identities tend to replace older generations with exclusively national identities