Landschappen van Maas en Peel : een toegepast historisch-geografisch onderzoek in het streekplangebied Noord- en Midden-Limburg

SummaryThe theme of this book is use of data on the historic cultural landscape in physical planning. The book contains a general introduction into this subject, as well as a case study: a large survey of the northern and central parts of the Dutch province of Limburg.Structure of the bookThe book consists of five parts. The first, introductory, part presents the contours of the research project, as well as chapters on terminology and on the development of applied historical geography in the Netherlands. Parts 2 and 3 pertain to the regional survey. In part 4 the large-scale maps are explained, an assessment is presented and some general remarks are made on the preservation of historic landscapes. Part 5 presents conclusions and recommendations.The way the regional description of North and Central Limburg is structured reflects the specific problems of research in historical geography. This type of research is partly historical and partly geographical, with the first calling for a chronological, the second for a regional treatment. The approach in this book is to describe both aspects more or less separately. Part 2 provides the geographical characteristics. This part gives a description of the spatial structure of the landscape and corresponds with Map 1 (`Characteristics of the cultural landscape'). Part 3 deals with the development in time: the chronology of reclamations, development of towns etc. This part is especially connected with Map 2, the map with historic elements. Cross-referencing ensures consistency in the description as a whole. Each chapter concludes with a summarizing section on the most important relics in the landscape.Part 1. IntroductionIntroduction (Chapter 1)Studying the history of the landscape provides a better insight into the present cultural landscape. This insight can be used to preserve characteristic historic elements and patterns. It can also serve as a source of inspiration for planning new developments.The present research was commissioned by the provincial government of Limburg, as part of the preparations for the renewal of the regional plan. The project started with the following questions:How did the present cultural landscape of North and Central Limburg come into being and which forces shaped the landscape?Which relics in the present landscape are reminders of that historical development? Where is the historic cultural landscape still more or less recognizable?What is the value of those relics and what measures and policies are necessary to protect historic landscapes and their relics?To answer each question, knowledge of the history of the cultural landscape is essential. However, in the region under consideration, very little was known of that history. Therefore, much time went into compiling an overview of the history of the region's cultural landscape.Furthermore, we aimed at presenting the data within the wider scope of the development of research in applied historical geography in the Netherlands during the last few decades. Thereby, we posed the following questions:- What are the backgrounds of applied historical-geographical research? Why is this research being done and who uses the results?- What are the possibilities and restraints for the future?The main arguments for preserving historic landscapes are located in: ethics (the roots of our culture), irreplaceability, science (the landscape as a historical source), education (teaching history in the field), ecology (the cultural landscape as ecosystem), economics, identity and aesthetics. Different groups have a different interest in the landscape.Parts 1 and 4 of this study are based on the existing literature, with additional information coming from interviews. The (regional) parts 2 and 3 are based on a variety of sources, including maps, the literature, archives and fieldwork. Exact data on the development of the landscape during the 19th and 20th centuries were collected by inventorizing a sample of 1500 points on the map.The language of the cultural landscape: terms and definitions (Chapter 2)Chapter 2 presents a terminological framework for applied historical geography. First (section 2.1) the basic terms are defined: (historical) geography, cultural history and cultural landscape. Next (section 2.2), the relics are divided into different categories: [1] elements, ensembles, patterns and structures and [2] functioning, archaic and fossil objects. Then (section 2.3) the concept of preservation is discussed, with special emphasis on the question of `what' is being preserved and why. Lastly, section 2.4 looks at heritage management, including the relation between maintenance, restoration and reconstruction, as well as the difference between material and conceptual preservation and the matter of authenticity.Historical geography, landscape and planning (Chapter 3)Chapter 3 describes the growing interest in landscape history and the emergence of applied historical geography in the Netherlands. Four periods are distinguished.During the first period (until ca. 1945) interest grew slowly and, from the end of the 19th century, a First Green Wave can be distinguished. In the first part of the present century, the then emerging physical planning had strong roots in preservation.The second period (`Postwar reconstruction') was characterized by very limited interest in landscapes and monuments. Physical planning was superseded by different types of sectoral planning, especially for agriculture and infrastructure. In the meantime, historical geography developed as a discipline, made possible by the growing numbers of staff within university geography departments.During the third period (`Years of reflection'; ca. 1970 - ca. 1990), a protest movement developed against the rapid loss of historic relics and landscapes: the Second Green Wave. In the inner cities the demolition scenes of the former period gave way to `urban renewal'. In the rural areas interest in the values of landscapes grew and new legislation for landscape protection was introduced. This led to a demand for data on historic landscapes and landscape values. The opportunities for research in this field presented new vistas for historical geographers. They were in a good position for this job because of geography's old contacts with planning. Moreover, historical geographers had become isolated within geographical institutes that had turned away from regional and landscape studies.During the 1970s the first regional surveys of historic relics and landscapes were carried out. In the 1980s survey methods became standardized and historical geography gradually carved out a niche of its own in rural reconstruction schemes and regional plans.The present (fourth) period (from ca. 1990) has witnessed greater speed in urbanization processes. Historical geographers got involved with new themes, such as nature development, river dike reconstructions and infrastructure, sometimes within the framework of Environmental Impact Reports. Also, cooperation with other heritage disciplines (archeology, architectural history) grew and GIS techniques came into use.Part 2. Space: the structure of the cultural landscape of North and Central LimburgIn this part, the spatial structure of the landscape is described, with a special emphasis on those parts of the cultural landscape that changed so slowly that they do not fit into the chronological description of Part 3.Introduction to the region (Chapter 4)Within the region, three old and two recent cultural landscapes can be distinguished. The old landscapes, based on physical geographical regions, are those of the river terraces , the ice-pushed ridge and the cover sand . The recent landscapes are the landscape of the recent reclamations and the peat excavation landscape .The natural landscape (Chapter 5)The physical-geographical landscape was formed by a number of forces (section 5.1): earth (tectonics), ice, water, wind, vegetation, fauna and man. Man has adapted the physical-geographical landscape radically, and changed it into a cultural landscape. In section 5.2 the three physical-geographical landscapes ( river terraces , ice-pushed ridge and cover sand ) are discussed.Streams have shaped parts of the landscape and have for millennia played a central role in human settlement and activities. In sections 5.3 and 5.4, respectively, the River Meuse and the smaller streams are described. The Meuse crosses a number of faults that divide the river valley into three parts. In the central part, the river crosses a horst (uplifted fault block), and has cut out a narrow valley. North and south of this, the river valley is broad and the river has been very dynamic. In these parts, the valley settlements were protected by a unique system of hooked dikes.Since Roman times the Meuse has been used for shipping. The smaller streams were used in a number of ways: drinking water, irrigation, industry (breweries), watermills and defence.The components of the cultural landscape (Chapter 6)The common basis for all old agrarian cultural landscapes of North and Central Limburg is the former mixed farming system. In this system, every farmer had some arable land as well as a certain area of pasture (grassland, heathland, wood). Although most of these landscapes have changed enormously since the 19th century, the old characteristics are still recognizable.In this chapter, each of the basic elements of these cultural landscapes is described, starting with the situation in the 19th century.Arable land A factor which determined whether land is used as arable is the groundwater level. On the ice-pushed ridge, the arable land is found low on the slope, between the wetland in the valley and the dry hilltops. Elsewhere, usually only the highest parts of the landscape were arable land. The open fields are characterized on the one hand by visual openness (large scale) and on the other hand by a fragmentation in terms of ownership and land use. These characteristics were already developed during the Middle Ages.Grasslands Grasslands were situated partly in wet places, partly beside the farms, with the best grasslands in the stream valleys. Here, water-filled ditches and hawthorn hedges, acted as field boundaries.Uncultivated areas Until the 20th century, every settlement had at its disposal a large area of commons. In the early modern period, most of these consisted of heathlands, but other parts were forest, fenland or sand dunes. All these areas were used. Forests provided wood, that was used in many different ways, as well as pasture, especially for pigs. Heathland was used as pasture (especially for sheep) and as a source of sods. For centuries, peatbogs were excavated for peat. Even sand dunes have been used for keeping rabbits. Many raw materials, such as gravel and clay, were taken from the commons.In the course of time, rights to use the commons gradually became more strictly regulated. That often brought degradation to a halt for longer periods, but not indefinitely. In the long term, all primeval and almost all secondary forests disappeared and also the resulting heathland was often overused. In this respect agriculture was not sustainable. Only in the course of the 19th century did the pressure on the commons diminish.Roads and tracks Local roads connected the settlements with arable land, pastures and other settlements. Long-distance routes crossed the region in different directions. In the north-south direction the Meuse was the most important route, from east to west overland routes commanded almost all the traffic, although from the 17th century onwards attempts were made to construct shipping canals.Settlements In the old mixed farming system, the border between the high arable land and the low-lying grasslands was the optimal location for building farms. Most agrarian settlements were situated on such locations. The small enclosures near the farms contrasted with the open, large-scale landscapes of the open fields and heathlands.The agrarian settlements show great differences in size: from dispersed farms to large villages. The larger settlements varied in morphology: linear or concentrated and with or without greens.Besides the agrarian settlements there were other settlements where other functions, such as trade, industry or services, dominated. In the late Middle Ages, two proper towns, Roermond and Venlo, were located in the study area as well as a large number of small towns and large villages.The cultural landscapes (Chapter 7)In chapter 4 the different cultural landscapes are described according to the situation prevailing in the 19th century, but for each landscape the historical development is reconstructed.The old cultural landscape on the edge of the ice-pushed ridge Only the southernmost extension of the landscape of the ice-pushed ridges falls within the area under study. Here the village of Mook, the origins of which must go back to Roman times, lies low on the slope of the ridge. The higher parts of the slope were heathland during the 19th century, but have since then been planted with forest. On top of the ridge are some 18th-century reclamations.The old cultural landscapes of the cover sand region The cover sand region used to be flat and marshy, with small, oval-shaped cover sand ridges. The ridges which were well drained were suitable for settlement and arable land. The ridges varied in size. The smaller ones, with a size of a few hectares, became the arable land of a single farm (an enclosure or `kamp'; plural: `kampen') and formed the basis for a small-scale landscape with a dispersed settlement pattern.Elsewhere, larger cover sand ridges made larger arable fields possible. Here, the basic settlement pattern consisted of hamlets or small villages with `open fields'. The shape of these settlements varied: loose rows of farms on the edge of the ridge were found beside nucleated hamlets. The church villages often developed into large and densely built nucleated villages.In most cases, the origins of the (differences in) settlement types are still unclear. The main question here concerns the relation between the church villages and the surrounding hamlets. A large amount of research in the nearby `Kempen' region clearly showed that the early medieval churches there were centrally situated on the cover sand ridges. During the High Middle Ages (12th and 13th centuries) most church hamlets were deserted and the population moved to newly founded hamlets on the edges of the stream valleys. This points to the importance of the (possibly newly reclaimed) grasslands in the stream valleys within the agricultural economy. However, this model does not seem to apply to the region under study. Here, the development is obscure. In most cases the present church village is certainly old (Venray), in other cases the hamlets seem older than the central villages.A gradual and varied development is most likely. Already during the Early Middle Ages (500-1000 AD), people had settled on some of the cover sand ridges. In the course of the Middle Ages the arable land on the cover sand ridges was expanded and new, smaller, ridges were reclaimed. Some of the hamlets became church villages, maybe because of the existence of a manor, other (not necessarily younger) settlements remained as hamlets. Especially around the larger villages, small areas of low-lying land between arable land were filled in and the original `kampen' and small open fields fused to become extensive open fields.The old cultural landscapes on the river terraces The cultural landscape of the river terraces shows great similarities with that of the cover sand landscape. Here also, dispersed farms with `kampen' as well as hamlets and villages with open fields, can be found. Furthermore, until the 19th century, arable land and settlements were limited to ridges. However, the physical-geographical landscape of the river terraces shows a different origin (the ridges were shaped by past erosive activities of the Meuse and Rhine) and more variation. In addition, the history of settlement seems longer, with continuous occupation since the Roman period, and more varied.Two small regions are noteworthy. [1] The highly fragmented landscape in the southwestern part of the region is dominated by dispersed settlements. The individual enclosures account for a small-scale landscape. [2] The valley of the Roer is dominated by large, manor-like farms with small forests and lanes.Of the settlements in the Meuse valley, the ones that were based partly on trade are situated directly on the banks of the river. Most of the agrarian settlements, however, turn their backs to the river. The settlement pattern on the river terraces changed considerably during the Middle Ages and after. Sometimes the reasons are clear, for example where villages were threatened by river erosion. In other cases, the reasons are still obscure. In a number of villages the focus of the village moved, sometimes leading to a changing location of the village church.The young landscapes The young cultural landscapes can be found in those regions that were still unreclaimed in the beginning of the 19th century. Parts of these regions have remained as forest, heathland, fenland or sand dunes to the present day. A much larger part has been reclaimed during the last two centuries. With the exception of a small part that is still recognizable as a peat colony, we find here the landscape of the `recent heathland reclamations'.This landscape is characterized by dispersed settlements and a very regular layout of straight roads and field boundaries. The roads were mainly planned during the 19th century as the basis for new, large-scale forest plantations. Later, this regular configuration of roads became the basis for the new agrarian landscape, when dispersed farms were built on these roads. In large reclamations, small villages (were) developed as central places.Within the landscape of the recent heathland reclamations a number of subtypes can be distinguished: large-scale forests, small-scale reclamations (by individual farmers) and large-scale reclamations (by local governments or by estate owners). However, all these types share the basic characteristics (straight lines, little connection with the physical landscape, few hedgerows) that make them easily distinguishable from the older landscapes.The non-agrarian landscapes The peat colony (peat excavation landscape) around the village of Griendtsveen is the only non-agrarian landscape that is large enough to be identified as a separate landscape type. The pattern of peat canals is based on techniques developed elsewhere in the Netherlands, although details (the trident structure) of the pattern followed here are unique. During the 1920s, narrow gauge railways replaced the canals as the principal means of transport.Towns and large villages The large towns are relatively uniformly spread over the region. Since the late Middle Ages, the main cities have been Roermond and Venlo. The oldest part of Roermond was a castle on a hill. At the foot of the hill, a settlement grew, which was later extended with the provision of a large rectangular marketplace and a regular configuration of streets. This new town was walled during the 13th century and extended and surrounded by a new wall during the 14th. The original castle, now outside the city walls, was demolished.The town of Venlo grew out of two older settlements: an agrarian village around the present St. Martin's church and a traders' settlement on the banks of the Meuse. Between those two nuclei, during the 14th century a regular street pattern was laid out.Part 3. Time: the landscape of North and Central Limburg through the agesThe historical section gives a chronological review of the history of the cultural landscape. Each chapter is divided into sections which describe the development of individual functions (corresponding with the classification of the individual relics on Map 2): socio-economic development, political and juridicial, infrastructure, mineral resources, industry, agriculture and forestry, settlements and (for the most recent periods) urban and landscape planning.Prehistoric and Roman Periods (Chapter 8)Paleolithic and Mesolithic The oldest traces of human activities date from the Paleolithic. During this period, and also during the following Mesolithic, man lived by hunting and foraging. Population density was low, as was the influence of man on the environment.Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age With the introduction of agriculture, in the beginning of the Neolithic (ca. 4300 BC), human influence on the environment became so great that we speak of a local cultural landscape. Agriculture brought with it reclamations and permanent settlements. A number of tumuli, the earliest visible relics in the landscape, date from the Neolithic. During this period, parts of the region, especially in the western and northeastern parts, became uninhabitable because of the growing fen