The GENCODE v7 catalog of human long noncoding RNAs: analysis of their gene structure, evolution, and expression

The human genome contains many thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). While several studies have demonstrated compelling biological and disease roles for individual examples, analytical and experimental approaches to investigate these genes have been hampered by the lack of comprehensive lncRNA annotation. Here, we present and analyze the most complete human lncRNA annotation to date, produced by the GENCODE consortium within the framework of the ENCODE project and comprising 9277 manually annotated genes producing 14,880 transcripts. Our analyses indicate that lncRNAs are generated through pathways similar to that of protein-coding genes, with similar histone-modification profiles, splicing signals, and exon/intron lengths. In contrast to protein-coding genes, however, lncRNAs display a striking bias toward two-exon transcripts, they are predominantly localized in the chromatin and nucleus, and a fraction appear to be preferentially processed into small RNAs. They are under stronger selective pressure than neutrally evolving sequences-particularly in their promoter regions, which display levels of selection comparable to protein-coding genes. Importantly, about one-third seem to have arisen within the primate lineage. Comprehensive analysis of their expression in multiple human organs and brain regions shows that lncRNAs are generally lower expressed than protein-coding genes, and display more tissue-specific expression patterns, with a large fraction of tissue-specific lncRNAs expressed in the brain. Expression correlation analysis indicates that lncRNAs show particularly striking positive correlation with the expression of antisense coding genes. This GENCODE annotation represents a valuable resource for future studies of lncRNAs.This work has been carried out under grants RD07/0067/0012, BIO2006-03380, and CSD2007-00050 from the Spanish Ministry of Science, grant SGR-1430 from the Catalan Government, grants 1U54HG004557-01 and 1U54HG004555-01 from the National Institutes of Health, and INBISCIII from Instituto de Salud Carlos III and FEDER. This research project has been cofinanced by the European Commission, within the 7th Framework Programme, Grant Agreement KBBE-2A-222664 (‘‘Quantomics’’). C.N. is financed by the Plan Nacional BFU2008-00419. G.B. is supported by the La Caixa Ph.D. progra