Transforming smallholder irrigation into profitable and self-sustaining systems in southern Africa

Small-scale communal irrigation schemes in Africa have not realised returns on investment. Critical to this failure is that funders, designers and managers of these schemes have not recognized them as complex socio-ecological systems with a diversity of constraints. These schemes are often under-performing and characterized by a subsistence orientation, which is compounded by poor market integration, low capacity to invest in crop production, low yields, difficulties paying for water, or lack of willingness to participate in system maintenance. The end result is unsustainable utilisation of resources, failed infrastructure, inefficient use of water and land and increased conflict over access to these resources. Conventional irrigation scheme development has focused on ‘hard’ technologies to improve the functionality and efficiency of infrastructure and/or irrigation application technologies. However, hard technology improvements on their own have failed to deliver sustainable schemes and improve the livelihoods of irrigation farmers (Inocencio et al., 2007): broken and decaying infrastructure is just one element of an underperforming system. While technologies that are more efficient may help improve yield, they will not necessarily improve profitability. A great many irrigation schemes are trapped in a negative cycle of infrastructure provision, unprofitable farming, lack of investment in maintenance, infrastructure degradation leading to donors subsidizing infrastructure rehabilitation (Pittock & Stirzaker, 2014; Bjornlund et al., 2017). Transitioning these complex systems into profitable, equitable and economically sustainable schemes requires investment not only in smart technologies but also in the farmers, institutions and building the value-chain network. The project features a two-pronged approach consisting of two complementary entry points to transition small-scale irrigation schemes towards long-term sustainability. Smart water management (SWM) technologies were introduced to monitor soil moisture and nutrients and facilitate farmer learning about irrigation water management to increase yield. At the same time, smart water governance and learning processes, in the form of Agricultural Innovation Platforms (AIPs), were introduced to bring key stakeholders together to develop solutions to a range of challenges presenting barriers to turn increased yield into increased profitability. In the context of SWM, it is important to understand the influence of and linkages between the two key approaches applied in this project. The soil monitoring tools represent sophisticated but simple-to-use technologies designed to support a farmer-centred learning system. These are SWM tools in the traditional sense, but the focus is on resolving the ‘soft’ component of the irrigation challenge by providing a means for farmers to learn about water and nutrient management, which they can use in their decision-making. The AIP is a research and development approach that draws from systems thinking and is particularly well suited to problem solving in complex systems, such as irrigation schemes. An AIP brings together stakeholders with a shared interest, builds capacity and networks, and facilitates a dialogue to identify critical barriers and appropriate hard and soft technologies to improve profitability. Critically, there is no single solution to transitioning small-scale irrigation schemes to long-term sustainability. The AIP provides the context for the SWM technologies and identifies ‘stepping stone’ solutions to support ongoing learning and problem solving. Importantly, the AIP process enhances and facilitates the adoption of the learning from the SWM technologies whilst simultaneously addressing critical barriers to increasing yields and the profitability of water use. In essence, the key point argued and illustrated in the chapter is that SWM technologies need to be implemented in conjunction with smart governance and learning processes (a two-pronged approach). The AIP facilitation ensures that the information generated by the tools is used to develop a deeper understanding of the water-nutrient dynamics, which allows farmers to make more informed decisions about water and nutrient management and engage in farm level experimentation., This results in critical behaviour and practice change leading to improved yields and profitability. The project outcomes described in this chapter draw mainly from a survey of project participants—a baseline survey conducted in 2014 and an end of phase one survey in 2017—as well as ongoing focus groups and field observations by the project officers working with the farmers on both elements of the two-pronged approach. Overall, the irrigators participating in this project engaged actively with the SWM technologies and the AIPs. Many farmers have experienced significant yield and income increases resulting in increased food security and prosperity. The time saved through reduced irrigation frequency has been invested in further improving yields and/or diversifying income streams: by establishing and engaging in small businesses and other non-farm income earning activities. The irrigation schemes have experienced significant water savings resulting in an increase in supply that has been especially beneficial for down-stream users and has improved reliability during periods of scarcity. The improved profitability and reliability of supply has reduced conflicts, both among irrigators and within households, and resulted in an increased willingness to engage in collective action such as system maintenance, fee payment and fence building. The outcomes presented are the preliminary analysis of the changes reported in the surveys and further evaluation of both the outcomes and the research approach are ongoing. The research for development project described here was funded by the Australian Government through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and implemented in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. The project primarily focuses on the strategic priorities of the funding bodies and its relevance to country partners; however, it also has direct linkages to seven of the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and contributes to a broad range of SDG targets