Cardiorenal acute kidney injury: Epidemiology, presentation, causes, pathophysiology and treatment

Cardiovascular disease and major cardiovascular events represent main cause of death in both acute and chronic kidney disease patients. Kidney and heart failure are common and frequently co-exist; this organ – organ interaction, also called organ cross-talk led to well-known definition of cardiorenal syndrome (CRS). Here we'll describe cardiovascular involvement in patients with acute kidney injury (AKI). Also known as type-3 CRS or acute reno-cardiac CRS, it occurs when AKI contributes and/or precipitates development of acute cardiac injury. AKI may directly or indirectly produce an acute cardiac event and it can be associated to volume overload, metabolic acidosis and electrolytes disorders such as hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia; coronary artery disease, left ventricular dysfunction and fibrosis have been also described in patients with AKI with consequent direct negative effects on cardiac performanc