The design of public participation: who participates, when and how? Insights in climate adaptation planning from the Netherlands

The planning and implementation of climate adaptation measures requires the participation of citizens. The design of public participation is often determined by local government. Yet, it remains largely unclear to what extent there is deliberate design of participation efforts and which objectives are served with the designs put into practice. This article reviews three cases of adaptation planning in the Netherlands, using a theory-derived framework that links the design of public participation with nine different objectives that participation could have. These case studies illustrate that participants did not depart from an explicitly formulated and agreed-upon objective, leading to a design of the participatory process that was highly contingent. The findings suggest that a more systematic and deliberate approach, in which both the objectives and the design of public participation are communicated explicitly, and are discussed by participants, increases the chance that the objectives are met