A new mass-loss rate prescription for red supergiants

Evolutionary models have shown the substantial effect that strong mass-loss rates (⁠M˙s) can have on the fate of massive stars. Red supergiant (RSG) mass-loss is poorly understood theoretically, and so stellar models rely on purely empirical M˙–luminosity relations to calculate evolution. Empirical prescriptions usually scale with luminosity and effective temperature, but M˙ should also depend on the current mass and hence the surface gravity of the star, yielding more than one possible M˙ for the same position on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. One can solve this degeneracy by measuring M˙ for RSGs that reside in clusters, where age and initial mass (Minit) are known. In this paper we derive M˙ values and luminosities for RSGs in two clusters, NGC 2004 and RSGC1. Using newly derived Minit measurements, we combine the results with those of clusters with a range of ages and derive an Minit-dependent M˙ prescription. When comparing this new prescription to the treatment of mass-loss currently implemented in evolutionary models, we find models drastically overpredict the total mass-loss, by up to a factor of 20. Importantly, the most massive RSGs experience the largest downward revision in their mass-loss rates, drastically changing the impact of wind mass-loss on their evolution. Our results suggest that for most initial masses of RSG progenitors, quiescent mass-loss during the RSG phase is not effective at removing a significant fraction of the H-envelope prior to core-collapse, and we discuss the implications of this for stellar evolution and observations of SNe and SN progenitors